Paxillus involutus

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Paxillus involutus
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Boletales
Family: Paxillaceae
Genus: Paxillus
Species:
P. involutus
Binomial name
Paxillus involutus
(Batsch) Fr. (1838)
Synonyms[1][2]

Agaricus contiguus Bull. (1785)
Agaricus involutus Batsch (1786)
Agaricus adscendibus Bolton (1788)
Omphalia involuta (Batsch) Gray (1821)
Rhymovis involuta (Batsch) Rabenh. (1844)

Paxillus involutus
mycorrhizal
Edibility is deadly

Paxillus involutus, also known as the brown roll-rim or the common roll-rim, is a

mushrooms. It was first described by Pierre Bulliard in 1785, and was given its current binomial name by Elias Magnus Fries in 1838. Genetic testing suggests that Paxillus involutus may be a species complex
rather than a single species.

A common mushroom of

autoimmune hemolysis, even in those who had consumed the mushroom for years without any other ill effects. An antigen in the mushroom triggers the immune system to attack red blood cells. Serious and commonly fatal complications include acute kidney injury, shock, acute respiratory failure, and disseminated intravascular coagulation
.

Taxonomy and naming

Bulliard's 1785 drawing of "L'Agaric contigu" (Agaricus contiguus)

The brown roll-rim was described by French mycologist

International Code of Botanical Nomenclature set the starting date at May 1, 1753, the date of publication of Linnaeus' seminal work, the Species Plantarum.[9]
Hence the name no longer requires the ratification of Fries' authority.

The genus was later placed in a new family,

specific epithet involutus, 'inrolled', refers to the cap margin.[11] Common names include the naked brimcap,[12] poison paxillus,[13] inrolled pax,[14] poison pax, common roll-rim, brown roll-rim,[15] and brown chanterelle.[16] Gray called it the "involved navel-stool" in his 1821 compendium of British flora.[6]

Studies of the ecology and genetics of Paxillus involutus indicate that it may form a

P. obscurosporus, P. involutus sensu stricto (in the strict sense), P. validus, and a fourth species that has not yet been identified.[18] Changes in host range have occurred frequently and independently among strains within this species complex.[21]

Description

The gills of P. involutus are attached decurrently – extending down the length of the stipe.

Resembling a brown wooden

epigeous (aboveground) fruit body may be up to 6 cm (2+3⁄8 in) high.[11] The cap, initially convex then more funnel-shaped (infundibuliform) with a depressed centre and rolled rim (hence the common name), may be reddish-, yellowish- or olive-brown in colour and typically 4–12 cm (1+5⁄8–4+3⁄4 in) wide;[22] the cap diameter does not get larger than 15 cm (5+7⁄8 in).[23] The cap surface is initially downy and later smooth, becoming sticky when wet. The cap and cap margin initially serve to protect the gills of young fruit bodies: this is termed pilangiocarpic development.[24] The narrow brownish yellow gills are decurrent and forked, and can be peeled easily from the flesh (as is the case with the pores of boletes). Gills further down toward the stipe become more irregular and anastomose, and can even resemble the pores of bolete-type fungi. The fungus darkens when bruised and older specimens may have darkish patches. The juicy yellowish flesh has a mild to faintly sour or sharp odor and taste, and has been described as well-flavored upon cooking.[22][25] Of similar colour to the cap, the short stipe measures some 3–6 cm tall and 1–3 wide,[26] can be crooked, and tapers toward the base.[27]

Spores are ellipsoidal.

The spore print is brown, and the dimensions of the ellipsoid (oval-shaped) spores are 7.5–9 by 5–6 μm. The

cystidia both on the gill edge and face (cheilo- and pleurocystidia respectively), which are slender and filament-like, typically measuring 40–65 by 8–10.5 μm.[28]

Similar species

The brownish colour and funnel-like shape of P. involutus can lead to its confusion with several species of

Lactarius, many of which have some degree of toxicity themselves.[29] The lack of a milky exudate distinguishes it from any milk cap.[30] One of the more similar is L. turpis, which presents a darker olive colouration.[25] The related North American Paxillus vernalis has a darker spore print, thicker stipe and is found under aspen,[13] whereas the closer relative P. filamentosus is more similar in appearance to P. involutus. A rare species that grows only in association with alder, P. filamentosus can be distinguished from it by the pressed-down scales on the cap surface that point towards the cap margin, a light yellow flesh that bruises only slightly brown, and deep yellow-ochre gills that do not change colour upon injury[28]

The most similar species are two once thought to be part of P. involutus in Europe. Paxillus obscurisporus (originally obscurosporus) has larger fruit bodies than P. involutus, with caps up to 40 cm (16 in) wide whose margins tend to unroll and flatten with age, and a layer of cream-coloured mycelia covering the base of its tapered stipe. P. validus, also known only from Europe, has caps up to 20 cm (7+7⁄8 in) wide with a stipe that is more or less equal in width throughout its length. Found under broadleaved trees in parks, it can be reliably distinguished from P. involutus (and other Paxillus species) by the presence of crystals up to 2.5 μm long in the rhizomorphs, as the crystals found in rhizomorphs of other Paxillus species do not exceed 0.5 μm long.[23]

Other similar species include Phylloporus arenicola, Tapinella atrotomentosa, and Tapinella panuoides.[26]

Ecology, distribution and habitat

South Bohemia, Czech Republic

Paxillus involutus forms

molecular weight protein that binds metals.[38][39]

The presence of Paxillus involutus is related to much reduced numbers of bacteria associated with the roots of Pinus sylvestris. Instead bacteria are found on the external mycelium.[40] The types of bacteria change as well; a Finnish study published in 1997 found that bacterial communities under P. sylvestris without mycorrhizae metabolised organic and amino acids, while communities among P. involutus metabolised the sugar fructose.[41] Paxillus involutus benefits from the presence of some species of bacteria in the soil it grows in. As the fungus grows it excretes polyphenols, waste products that are toxic to itself and impede its growth, but these compounds are metabolised by some bacteria, resulting in increased fungal growth. Bacteria also produce certain compounds such as citric and malic acid, which stimulate P. involutus.[42]

Ulm, Germany

Highly abundant,

Lactarius plumbeus in the Pacific Northwest region of North America.[49] There it is found in both deciduous and coniferous woodland, commonly under plantings of white birch (Betula papyrifera) in urban areas.[29] It is one of a small number of fungal species which thrive in Pinus radiata plantations planted outside their natural range.[50] A study of polluted Scots pine forest around Oulu in northern Finland found that P. involutus became more abundant in more polluted areas while other species declined. Emissions from pulp mills, fertiliser, heating and traffic were responsible for the pollution, which was measured by sulfur levels in the pine needles.[51]

Paxillus involutus can be found growing on

mould species that parasitises Boletales members.[53] Infection results in the appearance of a whitish powder that first manifests on the pores, then spreads over the surface of the mushroom, becoming golden yellow to reddish-brown in maturity.[54]

Australian mycologist

Victoria[56] (where it was found near Betula and Populus)[57] and Western Australia. It has been recorded under introduced birch (Betula) and hazel (Corylus) in New Zealand.[58] Mycologist Rolf Singer reported a similar situation in South America, with the species recorded under introduced trees in Chile. It is likely to have been transported to those countries in the soil of imported European trees.[59]

Toxicity

A collection from Folsom, California

Paxillus involutus was widely eaten in Central and Eastern Europe until World War II, although English guidebooks did not recommend it.[22][30] In Poland, the mushroom was often eaten after pickling or salting.[15] It was known to be a gastrointestinal irritant when ingested raw but had been presumed edible after cooking.[28] Questions were first raised about its toxicity after German mycologist Julius Schäffer died after eating it in October 1944. About an hour after he and his wife ate a meal prepared with the mushrooms, Schäffer developed vomiting, diarrhea, and fever. His condition worsened to the point where he was admitted to hospital the following day and developed kidney failure, perishing after 17 days.[30][60]

In the mid-1980s, Swiss physician René Flammer discovered an

blood serum. In the course of subsequent meals, antigen-antibody complexes are formed; these complexes attach to the surface of blood cells and eventually lead to their breakdown.[28]

Poisoning symptoms are rapid in onset, consisting initially of vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and associated decreased blood volume.[63] Shortly after these initial symptoms appear, hemolysis develops, resulting in reduced urine output, hemoglobin in the urine or outright absence of urine formation, and anemia. Medical laboratory tests consist of testing for the presence of increasing bilirubin and free hemoglobin, and falling haptoglobins. Hemolysis may lead to numerous complications including acute kidney injury, shock, acute respiratory failure, and disseminated intravascular coagulation.[28][64][65] These complications can cause significant morbidity with fatalities having been reported.[64]

There is no antidote for poisoning, only

supportive treatment consisting of monitoring complete blood count, renal function, blood pressure, and fluid and electrolyte balance[66] and correcting abnormalities. The use of corticosteroids may be a useful adjunct in treatment, as they protect blood cells against hemolysis, thereby reducing complications.[67] Plasmapheresis reduces the circulating immune complexes in the blood which cause the hemolysis, and may be beneficial in improving the outcome.[63][68] Additionally, hemodialysis can be used for patients with compromised kidney function or kidney failure.[28]

Paxillus involutus also contains agents which appear to damage

phenols involutone[70] and involutin; the latter is responsible for the brownish discolouration upon bruising.[16]

Despite the poisonings, Paxillus involutus is still consumed in parts of Poland, Russia, and Ukraine, where people die from it every year.[71][72][73][74]

See also

  • List of deadly fungi

References

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External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paxillus_involutus&oldid=1219285419"