Pe̍h-ōe-jī
Pe̍h-ōe-jī Church Romanization | |
---|---|
Script type | |
Creator | Walter Henry Medhurst Elihu Doty John Van Nest Talmage |
Time period | since the 1830s |
Languages | Hokkien Southern Min |
Related scripts | |
Parent systems | Taiwanese Romanization System |
ISO 15924 | |
ISO 15924 | BCP 47 variant subtag: pehoeji [1] |
Pe̍h-ōe-jī (Taiwanese Hokkien:
Developed by Western missionaries working among the Chinese diaspora in Southeast Asia in the 19th century and refined by missionaries working in Xiamen and Tainan, it uses a modified Latin alphabet and some diacritics to represent the spoken language. After initial success in Fujian, POJ became most widespread in Taiwan and, in the mid-20th century, there were over 100,000 people literate in POJ. A large amount of printed material, religious and secular, has been produced in the script, including Taiwan's first newspaper, the Taiwan Church News.
During
Versions of pe̍h-ōe-jī have been devised for other Southern
In 2006, the
POJ laid the foundation for the creation of new literature in Taiwan. Before the 1920s, many people had already written literary works in POJ,[4] contributing significantly to the preservation of Southern Min vocabulary since the late 19th century. On October 14, 2006, the Ministry of Education in Taiwan announced the Taiwanese Romanization System or Tâi-lô based on POJ as the standard spelling system for Southern Min.
Name
Pe̍h-ōe-jī | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Traditional Chinese | 白話字 | |||||
Simplified Chinese | 白话字 | |||||
Hokkien POJ | Pe̍h-ōe-jī, Pe̍h-ōe-lī, Pe̍͘h-ōa-jī | |||||
Literal meaning | Vernacular writing | |||||
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The name pe̍h-ōe-jī (
The missionaries who invented and refined the system used, instead of the name pe̍h-ōe-jī, various other terms, such as "Romanized Amoy Vernacular" and "Romanized Amoy Colloquial."[5] The origins of the system and its extensive use in the Christian community have led to it being known by some modern writers as "Church Romanization" (教會羅馬字; Kàu-hōe Lô-má-jī; Jiàohuì Luōmǎzì) and is often abbreviated in POJ itself to Kàu-lô. (教羅; Jiàoluō)[7] There is some debate on whether "pe̍h-ōe-jī" or "Church Romanization" is the more appropriate name.
Objections to "pe̍h-ōe-jī" are that it can refer to more than one system and that both
History
The history of pe̍h-ōe-jī has been heavily influenced by official attitudes towards the Southern Min vernaculars and the Christian organizations that propagated it. Early documents point to the purpose of the creation of POJ as being pedagogical in nature, closely allied to educating Christian converts.[10]
Early development
The first people to use a romanized script to write Southern Min were Spanish missionaries in
This dictionary represents the first major reference work in POJ, although the romanization within was quite different from the modern system, and has been dubbed Early Church Romanization by one scholar of the subject.[7] Medhurst, who was stationed in Malacca, was influenced by Robert Morrison's romanization of Mandarin Chinese, but had to innovate in several areas to reflect major differences between Mandarin and Southern Min.[15] Several important developments occurred in Medhurst's work, especially the application of consistent tone markings (influenced by contemporary linguistic studies of Sanskrit, which was becoming of more mainstream interest to Western scholars).[16] Medhurst was convinced that accurate representation and reproduction of the tonal structure of Southern Min was vital to comprehension:
Respecting these tones of the Chinese language, some difference of opinion has been obtained, and while some have considered them of first importance, others have paid them little or no intention. The author inclines decidedly to the former opinion; having found, from uniform experience, that without strict attention to tones, it is impossible for a person to make himself understood in Hok-këèn.
— W. H. Medhurst[17]
The system expounded by Medhurst influenced later dictionary compilers with regard to tonal notation and initials, but both his complicated vowel system and his emphasis on the literary register of Southern Min were dropped by later writers.[18][19] Following on from Medhurst's work, Samuel Wells Williams became the chief proponent of major changes in the orthography devised by Morrison and adapted by Medhurst. Through personal communication and letters and articles printed in The Chinese Repository a consensus was arrived at for the new version of POJ, although Williams' suggestions were largely not followed.[20]
The first major work to represent this new orthography was Elihu Doty's Anglo-Chinese Manual with Romanized Colloquial in the Amoy Dialect,[20] published in 1853. The manual can therefore be regarded as the first presentation of a pre-modern POJ, a significant step onwards from Medhurst's orthography and different from today's system in only a few details.[21] From this point on various authors adjusted some of the consonants and vowels, but the system of tone marks from Doty's Manual survives intact in modern POJ.[22] John Van Nest Talmage has traditionally been regarded as the founder of POJ among the community which uses the orthography, although it now seems that he was an early promoter of the system, rather than its inventor.[14][20]
In 1842 the
Maturity
Khó-sioh lín pún-kok ê jī chin oh, chió chió lâng khòaⁿ ē hiáu-tit. Só͘-í góan ū siat pa̍t-mih ê hoat-tō͘, ēng pe̍h-ōe-jī lâi ìn-chheh, hō͘ lín chèng-lâng khòaⁿ khah khòai bat... Lâng m̄-thang phah-sǹg in-ūi i bat Khóng-chú-jī só͘-í m̄-bián o̍h chit-hō ê jī; iā m̄-thang khòaⁿ-khin i, kóng sī gín-á só͘-tha̍k--ê.
Because the characters in your country are so difficult only a few people are literate. Therefore, we have striven to print books in pe̍h-ōe-jī to help you to read... don't think that if you know Chinese characters you needn't learn this script, nor should you regard it as a childish thing.
Thomas Barclay, Tâi-oân-hú-siâⁿ Kàu-hōe-pò, Issue 1
The fact that religious tracts, dictionaries, and teaching guides already existed in the Xiamen tongue meant that the missionaries in Taiwan could begin proselytizing immediately, without the intervening time needed to write those materials.[25] Missionary opinion was divided on whether POJ was desirable as an end in itself as a full-fledged orthography, or as a means to literacy in Chinese characters. William Campbell described POJ as a step on the road to reading and writing the characters, claiming that to promote it as an independent writing system would inflame nationalist passions in China, where characters were considered a sacred part of Chinese culture.[26] Taking the other side, Thomas Barclay believed that literacy in POJ should be a goal rather than a waypoint:
Soon after my arrival in Formosa I became firmly convinced of three things, and more than fifty years experience has strengthened my conviction. The first was that if you are to have a healthy, living Church it is necessary that all the members, men and women, read the Scriptures for themselves; second, that this end can never be attained by the use of the Chinese character; third, that it can be attained by the use of the alphabetic script, this Romanised Vernacular.
— Thomas Barclay[27]
A great boon to the promotion of POJ in Taiwan came in 1880 when James Laidlaw Maxwell, a medical missionary based in Tainan, started promoting POJ for writing the Bible, hymns, newspapers, and magazines. He donated a small printing press to the local church,[28] which Thomas Barclay learned how to operate in 1881 before founding the Presbyterian Church Press in 1884. Subsequently, the Taiwan Prefectural City Church News, which first appeared in 1885 and was produced by Barclay's Presbyterian Church of Taiwan Press,[28] became the first printed newspaper in Taiwan,[29] marking the establishment of POJ in Taiwan, giving rise to numerous literary works written in POJ.[2]
As other authors made their own alterations to the conventions laid down by Medhurst and Doty, pe̍h-ōe-jī evolved and eventually settled into its current form. Ernest Tipson's 1934 pocket dictionary was the first reference work to reflect this modern spelling.[30] Between Medhurst's dictionary of 1832 and the standardization of POJ in Tipson's time, there were a number of works published, which can be used to chart the change over time of pe̍h-ōe-jī:[31]
Year | Author | Pe̍h-ōe-jī spellings comparison | Source | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[tɕ] | [ts] | [ŋ] [ŋ] | [ɪɛn]/[ɛn] | [iɛt̚] | [ɪk] | [iŋ] | [ɔ] | [◌ʰ] | |||
1832 | Medhurst | ch | gn | ëen | ëet | ek | eng | oe | 'h | [32] | |
1853 | Doty | ch | ng | ian | iat | iek | ieng | o͘ | ' | [33] | |
1869 | MacGowan | ts | ng | ien | iet | ek | eng | o͘ | h | [34] | |
1873 | Douglas | ch | ts | ng | ien | iet | ek | eng | ɵ͘ | h | [35] |
1894 | Van Nest Talmage | ch | ng | ian | iat | ek | eng | o͘ | h | [36] | |
1911 | Warnshuis & de Pree | ch | ng | ian | iat | ek | eng | o͘ | h | [37] | |
1913 | Campbell | ch | ts | ng | ian | iat | ek | eng | o͘ | h | [38] |
1923 | Barclay | ch | ts | ng | ian | iet | ek | eng | o͘ | h | [39] |
1934 | Tipson | ch | ng | ian | iat | ek | eng | o͘ | h | [40] |
Competition for POJ was introduced during the Japanese era in Taiwan (1895–1945) in the form of Taiwanese kana, a system designed as a teaching aid and pronunciation guide, rather than an independent orthography like POJ.[41]
During the Japanese rule period, the Japanese government began suppressing POJ, banning classes,[3] and forcing the cessation of publications like the Taiwan Church News. From the 1930s onwards, with the increasing militarization of Japan and the Kōminka movement encouraging Taiwanese people to "Japanize", there were a raft of measures taken against native languages, including Taiwanese.[42] While these moves resulted in a suppression of POJ, they were "a logical consequence of increasing the amount of education in Japanese, rather than an explicit attempt to ban a particular Taiwanese orthography in favor of Taiwanese kana".[43]
The Second Sino-Japanese War beginning in 1937 brought stricter measures into force, and along with the outlawing of romanized Taiwanese, various publications were prohibited and Confucian-style shobō (Chinese: 書房; pinyin: shūfáng; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: su-pâng) – private schools which taught Classical Chinese with literary Southern Min pronunciation – were closed down in 1939.[44] The Japanese authorities came to perceive POJ as an obstacle to Japanization and also suspected that POJ was being used to hide "concealed codes and secret revolutionary messages".[45] In the climate of the ongoing war the government banned the Taiwan Church News in 1942 as it was written in POJ.[46]
After World War II
Initially the Kuomintang government in Taiwan had a liberal attitude towards "local dialects" (i.e. non-Mandarin varieties of Chinese). The National Languages Committee produced booklets outlining versions of Zhuyin fuhao for writing the Taiwanese tongue, these being intended for newly arrived government officials from outside Taiwan as well as local Taiwanese.[47] The first government action against native languages came in 1953, when the use of Taiwanese or Japanese for instruction was forbidden.[48] The next move to suppress the movement came in 1955, when the use of POJ for proselytizing was outlawed.[46] At that point in time there were 115,000 people literate in POJ in Taiwan, Fujian, and southeast Asia.[49]
Two years later, missionaries were banned from using romanized bibles, and the use of "native languages" (i.e. Taiwanese Hokkien, Hakka, and the non-Sinitic Formosan languages) in church work became illegal.[46] The ban on POJ bibles was overturned in 1959, but churches were "encouraged" to use character bibles instead.[46] Government activities against POJ intensified in the late 1960s and early 1970s, when several publications were banned or seized in an effort to prevent the spread of the romanization. In 1964, use of Taiwanese in schools or official settings was forbidden,[48] and transgression in schools was punished with beatings, fines and humiliation.[50] The Taiwan Church News (printed in POJ) was banned in 1969, and only allowed to return a year later when the publishers agreed to print it in Chinese characters.[46][51] In the 1970s, the Nationalist government in Taiwan completely prohibited the use of POJ, causing it to decline.[52]
In 1974, the Government Information Office banned A Dictionary of Southern Min, with a government official saying: "We have no objection to the dictionary being used by foreigners. They could use it in mimeographed form. But we don't want it published as a book and sold publicly because of the Romanization it contains. Chinese should not be learning Chinese through Romanization."[53] Also in the 1970s, a POJ New Testament translation known as the "Red Cover Bible" (Âng-phoê Sèng-keng) was confiscated and banned by the Nationalist regime.[54] Official moves against native languages continued into the 1980s, the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of the Interior decided in 1984 to forbid missionaries to use "local dialects" and romanizations in their work.[46]
It was not until the late 1980s, with the lifting of martial law, that POJ slowly regained momentum under the influence of the native language movement. With the ending of martial law in 1987, the restrictions on "local languages" were quietly lifted,[55] resulting in growing interest in Taiwanese writing during the 1990s.[56] For the first time since the 1950s, Taiwanese language and literature was discussed and debated openly in newspapers and journals.[57] There was also support from the then opposition party, the Democratic Progressive Party, for writing in the language.[48] From a total of 26 documented orthographies for Taiwanese in 1987 (including defunct systems), there were a further 38 invented from 1987 to 1999, including 30 different romanizations, six adaptations of bopomofo and two hangul-like systems.[58] Some commentators believe that the Kuomintang, while steering clear of outright banning of the native language movements after the end of martial law, took a "divide and conquer" approach by promoting Taiwanese Language Phonetic Alphabet (TLPA), an alternative to POJ,[59] which was at the time the choice of the majority within the nativization movement.[60]
Native language education has remained a fiercely debated topic in Taiwan into the 21st century and is the subject of much political wrangling.[61][62]
Current system
The current system of pe̍h-ōe-jī has been stable since the 1930s, with a few minor exceptions (detailed below).[63] There is a fair degree of similarity with the Vietnamese alphabet, including the ⟨b/p/ph⟩ distinction and the use of ⟨ơ⟩ in Vietnamese compared with ⟨o͘⟩ in POJ.[64] POJ uses the following letters and combinations:[65]
Capital letters | A | B | CH | CHH | E | G | H | I | J | K | KH | L | M | N | ᴺ | NG | O | O͘ | P | PH | S | T | TH | U |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lowercase letters | a | b | ch | chh | e | g | h | i | j | k | kh | l | m | n | ⁿ | ng | o | o͘ | p | ph | s | t | th | u |
Letter names | a | be | che | chhe | e | ge | ha | i | ji̍t | ka | kha | é-luh | é-muh | é-nuh | iⁿ | ng | o | o͘ | pe | phe | e-suh | te | the | u |
A valid syllable in Hokkien takes the form (initial) + (medial vowel) + nucleus + (stop) + tone
, where items in parentheses indicate optional components.[71]
The initials are:[72]
Bilabial | Alveolar | Alveolo-palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m [m] ㄇ 毛 (mo͘) |
n [n] ㄋ 耐 (nāi) |
ng [ŋ] ㄫ 雅 (ngá) |
|||
Stop |
Unaspirated | p [p] ㄅ 邊 (pian) |
t [t] ㄉ 地 (tē) |
k [k] ㄍ 求 (kiû) |
||
Aspirated | ph [pʰ] ㄆ 波 (pho) |
th [tʰ] ㄊ 他 (thaⁿ) |
kh [kʰ] ㄎ 去 (khì) |
|||
Voiced | b [b] ㆠ 文 (bûn) |
g [ɡ] ㆣ 語 (gí) |
||||
Affricate |
Unaspirated | ch [ts] ㄗ 曾 (chan) |
chi [tɕ] ㄐ 尖 (chiam) |
|||
Aspirated | chh [tsʰ] ㄘ 出 (chhut) |
chhi [tɕʰ] ㄑ 手 (chhiú) |
||||
Voiced | j [dz] ㆡ 熱 (joa̍h) |
ji [dʑ] ㆢ 入 (ji̍p) |
||||
Fricative
|
s [s] ㄙ 衫 (saⁿ) |
si [ɕ] ㄒ 寫 (siá) |
h [h] ㄏ 喜 (hí) | |||
Lateral | l [ɭ/ɾ] ㄌ 柳 (liú) |
Vowels:[73]
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Coda endings:
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POJ has a limited amount of legitimate syllables, although sources disagree on some particular instances of these syllables. The following table contains all the licit spellings of POJ syllables, based on a number of sources:
Licit POJ syllables | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Sources: Campbell,[74] Embree,[75] Kì.[76] |
Tone markings
No. | Diacritic | Chinese tone name | Example ⓘ |
---|---|---|---|
1 | — | 陰平 (yīnpíng) dark level |
kha 跤 foot; leg |
2 | acute | 上聲 (shǎngshēng) rising |
chúi 水 water |
3 | grave | 陰去 (yīnqù) dark departing |
kàu 到 arrive |
4 | — | 陰入 (yīnrù) dark entering |
bah 肉 meat |
5 | circumflex | 陽平 (yángpíng) light level |
ông 王 king |
7 | macron | 陽去 (yángqù) light departing |
tiōng 重 heavy |
8 | vertical line above | 陽入 (yángrù) light entering |
joa̍h 熱 hot |
In standard Amoy or Taiwanese Hokkien there are seven distinct tones, which by convention are numbered 1–8, with number 6 omitted (tone 6 used to be a distinct tone, but has long since merged with tone 7 or 2 depending on lexical register). Tones 1 and 4 are both represented without a diacritic, and can be distinguished from each other by the syllable ending, which is a vowel, ⟨-n⟩, ⟨-m⟩, or ⟨-ng⟩ for tone 1, and ⟨-h⟩, ⟨-k⟩, ⟨-p⟩, and ⟨-t⟩ for tone 4.
Southern Min dialects undergo considerable tone sandhi, i.e. changes to the tone depending on the position of the syllable in any given sentence or utterance.[71] However, like pinyin for Mandarin Chinese, POJ always marks the citation tone (i.e. the original, pre-sandhi tone) rather than the tone which is actually spoken.[77] This means that when reading aloud the reader must adjust the tone markings on the page to account for sandhi. Some textbooks for learners of Southern Min mark both the citation tone and the sandhi tone to assist the learner.[78]
There is some debate as to the correct placement of tone marks in the case of diphthongs and triphthongs, particularly those which include ⟨oa⟩ and ⟨oe⟩.[79] Most modern writers follow six rules:[80]
- If the syllable has one vowel, that vowel should be tone-marked; viz. ⟨tī⟩, ⟨láng⟩, ⟨chhu̍t⟩
- If a diphthong contains ⟨i⟩ or ⟨u⟩, the tone mark goes above the other vowel; viz. ⟨ia̍h⟩, ⟨kiò⟩, ⟨táu⟩
- If a diphthong includes both ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩, mark the ⟨u⟩; viz. ⟨iû⟩, ⟨ùi⟩
- If the final is made up of three or more letters, mark the second vowel (except when rules 2 and 3 apply); viz. ⟨goán⟩, ⟨oāi⟩, ⟨khiáu⟩
- If ⟨o⟩ occurs with ⟨a⟩ or ⟨e⟩, mark the ⟨o⟩ (except when rule 4 applies); viz. ⟨òa⟩, ⟨thóe⟩
- If the syllable has no vowel, mark the nasal consonant; viz. ⟨m̄⟩, ⟨ǹg⟩, ⟨mn̂g⟩
Hyphens
A single hyphen is used to indicate a compound. What constitutes a compound is controversial, with some authors equating it to a "word" in English, and others not willing to limit it to the English concept of a word.[79] Examples from POJ include ⟨sì-cha̍p⟩ "forty", ⟨bé-hì-thôan⟩ "circus", and ⟨hôe-ho̍k⟩ "recover (from illness)". The non-final syllables of a compound typically undergo tone sandhi, but exact rules have not been clearly identified by linguists.[81]
A double hyphen ⟨--⟩ is used when POJ is deployed as an orthography (rather than as a transcription system) to indicate that the following syllable should be pronounced in the neutral tone.[82] It also marks to the reader that the preceding syllable does not undergo tone sandhi, as it would were the following syllable non-neutral. Morphemes following a double hyphen are often (but not always) grammatical function words.[83] Some authors use an interpunct ⟨·⟩ in place of the second hyphen.
Audio examples
POJ | Translation | Audio File |
---|---|---|
Sian-siⁿ kóng, ha̍k-seng tiām-tiām thiaⁿ. | A teacher/master speaks, students quietly listen. | ⓘ |
Kin-á-jit hit-ê cha-bó͘ gín-á lâi góan tau khòaⁿ góa. | Today that girl came to my house to see me. | ⓘ |
Thài-khong pêng-iú, lín-hó. Lín chia̍h-pá--bē? Ū-êng, to̍h lâi gún chia chē--ô͘! | Space friends, how are you? Have you eaten yet? When you have the time, come on over to eat. | Listen (from NASA Voyager Golden Record) |
Regional differences
In addition to the standard syllables detailed above, there are several regional variations of Hokkien which can be represented with non-standard or semi-standard spellings. In the
Texts
Goân-khí-thâu Siōng-tè chhòng-chō thiⁿ kap tōe. Tōe sī khang-khang hūn-tūn; chhim-ian ê bin-chiūⁿ o͘-àm; Siōng-tè ê Sîn ūn-tōng tī chúi-bīn. Siōng-tè kóng, Tio̍h ū kng, chiū ū kng. Siōng-tè khòaⁿ kng, sī hó; Siōng-tè chiong kng àm pun-khui. Siōng-tè kiò hit ê kng chòe Ji̍t, kiò àm chòe Mî. Ū ê-hng ū chá-khí sī thâu chi̍t-ji̍t.
Genesis 1:1–5[88]
Due to POJ's origins in the Christian church, much of the material in the script is religious in nature, including several Bible translations, books of hymns, and guides to morality. The Tainan Church Press, established in 1884, has been printing POJ materials ever since, with periods of quiet when POJ was suppressed in the early 1940s and from around 1955 to 1987. In the period to 1955, over 2.3 million volumes of POJ books were printed,[89] and one study in 2002 catalogued 840 different POJ texts in existence.[90] Besides a Southern Min version of Wikipedia in the orthography,[91] there are teaching materials, religious texts, and books about linguistics, medicine and geography.
- Lán ê Kiù-chú Iâ-so͘ Ki-tok ê Sin-iok (1873 translation of the New Testament)
- Lāi-goā-kho Khàn-hō͘-ha̍k, by George Gushue-Taylor, 1917
- Chinese–English dictionary of the vernacular or spoken language of Amoy, by Carstairs Douglas, 1873
- Lear Ông, translation of King Lear by Tē Hūi-hun
Computing
POJ was initially not well supported by word-processing applications due to the special diacritics needed to write it. Support has now improved and there are now sufficient resources to both enter and display POJ correctly. Several
Unicode codepoints
The following are tone characters and their respective Unicode codepoints used in POJ. The tones used by POJ should use Combining Diacritical Marks instead of Spacing Modifier Letters used by bopomofo.[96][97] As POJ is not encoded in Big5, the prevalent encoding used in Traditional Chinese, some POJ letters are not directly encoded in Unicode, instead should be typed using combining diacritical marks officially.[98]
Base letter/Tone 1 | Tone 2 | Tone 3 | Tone 4 | Tone 5 | Tone 7 | Tone 8 | Variant | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Combining mark | ́ (U+0301) | ̀ (U+0300) | h | ̂ (U+0302) | ̄ (U+0304) | ̍h (U+030D) | ˘ (U+0306) | |||||||||
One mark | ||||||||||||||||
Uppercase | A | Á (U+00C1) | À (U+00C0) | AH | Â (U+00C2) | Ā (U+0100) | A̍H (U+0041 U+030D) | Ă (U+0102) | ||||||||
E | É (U+00C9) | È (U+00C8) | EH | Ê (U+00CA) | Ē (U+0112) | E̍H (U+0045 U+030D) | Ĕ (U+0114) | |||||||||
I | Í (U+00CD) | Ì (U+00CC) | IH | Î (U+00CE) | Ī (U+012A) | I̍H (U+0049 U+030D) | Ĭ (U+012C) | |||||||||
O | Ó (U+00D3) | Ò (U+00D2) | OH | Ô (U+00D4) | Ō (U+014C) | O̍H (U+004F U+030D) | Ŏ (U+014E) | |||||||||
U | Ú (U+00DA) | Ù (U+00D9) | UH | Û (U+00DB) | Ū (U+016A) | U̍H (U+0055 U+030D) | Ŭ (U+016C) | |||||||||
M | Ḿ (U+1E3E) | M̀ (U+004D U+0300) | MH | M̂ (U+004D U+0302) | M̄ (U+004D U+0304) | M̍H (U+004D U+030D) | M̆ (U+004D U+0306) | |||||||||
N | Ń (U+0143) | Ǹ (U+01F8) | NH | N̂ (U+004E U+0302) | N̄ (U+004E U+0304) | N̍H (U+004E U+030D) | N̆ (U+004E U+0306) | |||||||||
Lowercase | a | á (U+00E1) | à (U+00E0) | ah | â (U+00E2) | ā (U+0101) | a̍h (U+0061 U+030D) | ă (U+0103) | ||||||||
e | é (U+00E9) | è (U+00E8) | eh | ê (U+00EA) | ē (U+0113) | e̍h (U+0065 U+030D) | ĕ (U+0115) | |||||||||
i | í (U+00ED) | ì (U+00EC) | ih | î (U+00EE) | ī (U+012B) | i̍h (U+0069 U+030D) | ĭ (U+012D) | |||||||||
o | ó (U+00F3) | ò (U+00F2) | oh | ô (U+00F4) | ō (U+014D) | o̍h (U+006F U+030D) | ŏ (U+014F) | |||||||||
u | ú (U+00FA) | ù (U+00F9) | uh | û (U+00FB) | ū (U+016B) | u̍h (U+0075 U+030D) | ŭ (U+016D) | |||||||||
m | ḿ (U+1E3F) | m̀ (U+006D U+0300) | mh | m̂ (U+006D U+0302) | m̄ (U+006D U+0304) | m̍h (U+006D U+030D) | m̆ (U+006D U+0306) | |||||||||
n | ń (U+0144) | ǹ (U+01F9) | nh | n̂ (U+006E U+0302) | n̄ (U+006E U+0304) | n̍h (U+006E U+030D) | n̆ (U+006E U+0306) | |||||||||
Two tones [2] | ||||||||||||||||
Uppercase | O͘ (U+004F U+0358) | Ó͘ | Ò͘ | O͘H | Ô͘ | Ō͘ | O̍͘H | Ŏ͘ | ||||||||
Lowercase | o͘ (U+006F U+0358) | ó͘ | ò͘ | o͘h | ô͘ | ō͘ | o̍͘h | ŏ͘ | ||||||||
Notes
|
Superscript n is also required for POJ to indicate nasalisation:
Character | Unicode codepoint |
---|---|
ⁿ | U+207F |
ᴺ | U+1D3A |
Characters not directly encoded in Unicode (especially O͘ series which has 3 different permutations) requires premade glyphs in fonts in order for applications to correctly display the characters.[97]
Font support
Fonts that currently support POJ includes:
- Charis SIL
- DejaVu
- Doulos SIL
- Linux Libertine
- Taigi Unicode
- I.Ming (8.00 onwards) from Ichiten Font Project
- Fonts made by justfont foundry[97]
- Fonts modified and release in GitHub repository POJFonts : POJ Phiaute, Gochi Hand POJ, Nunito POJ, POJ Vibes, and POJ Garamond.
- Fonts modified and released by But Ko based on Source Han Sans: Genyog, Genseki, Gensen ; based on Source Han Serif: Genyo, Genwan, Genryu.
Han-Romanization mixed script
翻 tńg 工,我 koh hap i tī Hotel ê 餐廳食西式 ê chái 起,我講 beh tò 去稅厝 ê 所在,i beh 送我去,我 kā 拒絕,mā 無 beh hō͘ i 知我 ê 地址、電話番,講若有緣就會 koh 再相會。I 講人海茫茫,我若無 tī hit 間跳舞、唱歌,i beh 去 toh 位 chhōe--我?「就是 án-ni m̄-chiah 講是緣」,我嘴是 án-ni 應,心肝內知影 kap i 自細漢到這時 ê 牽連、綿纏無 hiah 簡單就煞。
Sample mixed orthography text[101]
One of the most popular modern ways of writing Taiwanese is by using a mixed orthography
Adaptations for other Chinese varieties
POJ has been adapted for several other varieties of Chinese, with varying degrees of success. For Hakka, missionaries and others have produced a Bible translation, hymn book, textbooks, and dictionaries.[110] Materials produced in the orthography, called Pha̍k-fa-sṳ, include:
- Hak-ngi Sṳn-kin, Sin-yuk lau Sṳ-phien: Hien-thoi Thoi-van Hak-ngi Yit-pun (Hakka Bible, New Testament and Psalms: Today's Taiwan Hakka Version). Bible Society. 1993.
- Phang Tet-siu (1994). Thai-ka Loi Hok Hak-fa (Everybody Learn Hakka). Taipei: Southern Materials Center. ISBN 957-638-017-0.
- Phang Tet-siu (1996). Hak-ka-fa Fat-yim Sṳ-tien (Hakka Pronunciation Dictionary). Taipei: Southern Materials Center. ISBN 957-638-359-5.
- Hak-ka Sṳn-sṳ (Hakka Hymns). Tainan: PCT Press. 1999. ISBN 957-8349-75-0.
A modified version of POJ has also been created for
Current status
Most native Southern Min speakers in Taiwan are unfamiliar with POJ or any other writing system,[112] commonly asserting that "Taiwanese has no writing",[113] or, if they are made aware of POJ, considering romanization as the "low" form of writing, in contrast with the "high" form (Chinese characters).[114] For those who are introduced to POJ alongside Hàn-lô and completely Chinese character-based systems, a clear preference has been shown for all-character systems, with all-romanization systems at the bottom of the preference list, likely because of the preexisting familiarity of readers with Chinese characters.[115]
POJ remains the Taiwanese orthography "with the richest inventory of written work, including dictionaries, textbooks, literature [...] and other publications in many areas".[116] A 1999 estimate put the number of literate POJ users at around 100,000,[117] and secular organizations have been formed to promote the use of romanization among Taiwanese speakers.[118]
Outside Taiwan, POJ is rarely used. For example, in Fujian, Xiamen University uses a romanization known as Bbánlám pìngyīm, based on Pinyin. In other areas where Hokkien is spoken, such as Singapore, the Speak Mandarin Campaign is underway to actively discourage people from speaking Hokkien or other non-Mandarin varieties in favour of switching to Mandarin instead.[119]
In 2006, Taiwan's
Notes
- ^ 謬
References
Romanization of Chinese |
---|
Mandarin |
Wu |
Yue |
Min |
Gan |
Hakka |
Xiang |
Polylectal |
See also |
Citations
- ^ "Language Subtag Registry". IANA. Retrieved 2024-03-13.
- ^ a b Tân, Bō͘-Chin (2015). 白話字的起源與在台灣的發展 [The Origins of Pe̍h-ōe-jī and Its Development in Taiwan] (in Chinese). National Taiwan Normal University. pp. 1, 5.
- ^ a b Sakai, Tōru (2003-06-11). 台語羅馬字的衰退係外來政權鎮壓的後果 [The Decline of Taiwanese Romanized Script as a Consequence of Foreign Suppression] (in Chinese).
- ^ Chiúⁿ, Ûi-bûn (2005). 羅馬字是臺灣新文學ê開基祖 [Romanization: The Founding Father of New Taiwanese Literature]. 語言、認同與去殖民 [Language, Identity, and Decolonization] (in Chinese). National Cheng Kung University.
- ^ a b c Klöter (2005), p. 90.
- ^ a b Klöter (2002), p. 1.
- ^ a b Klöter (2005), p. 89.
- ^ a b Chang (2001), p. 13.
- ^ a b Klöter (2005), p. 248.
- ^ a b c Klöter (2005), p. 92.
- ^ Klöter (2002), p. 2.
- ^ Heylen (2001), p. 139.
- ^ a b Heylen (2001), p. 142.
- ^ a b Chang (2001), p. 14.
- ^ Heylen (2001), p. 144.
- ^ Klöter (2005), p. 109.
- ^ Medhurst (1832), p. viii.
- ^ Klöter (2005), p. 110.
- ^ Heylen (2001), p. 145.
- ^ a b c Heylen (2001), p. 149.
- ^ Klöter (2005), p. 111.
- ^ Klöter (2005), pp. 111, 116.
- ^ a b c Klöter (2005), p. 93.
- ^ Ang (1992), p. 2.
- ^ Heylen (2001), p. 160.
- ^ Klöter (2002), p. 13.
- ^ Quoted in Band (1936), p. 67
- ^ a b "Our Story". Taiwan Church News. Archived from the original on 2009-03-01. Retrieved 2009-04-30.
- ^ Copper (2007), p. 240.
- ^ Klöter (2005), p. 114.
- ^ Adapted from Klöter (2005), pp. 113–6
- ^ Medhurst (1832).
- ^ Doty (1853).
- ^ MacGowan (1869).
- ^ Douglas (1873).
- ^ Van Nest Talmage (1894).
- ^ Warnshuis & de Pree (1911).
- ^ Campbell (1913).
- ^ Barclay (1923).
- ^ Tipson (1934).
- ^ Klöter (2005), p. 136.
- ^ Klöter (2005), p. 153.
- ^ Klöter (2005), p. 154.
- ^ Klöter (2005), p. 135.
- ^ Lin (1999), p. 21.
- ^ a b c d e f Chang (2001), p. 18.
- ^ Klöter (2005), p. 231.
- ^ a b c Lin (1999), p. 1.
- ^ Tiuⁿ (2004), p. 7.
- ^ Sandel (2003), p. 533.
- ^ Klöter (2005), p. 217.
- ^ Chiúⁿ, Ûi-bûn (2013). "教會內台語白話字使用人口kap現況調查" [Survey of the Current Use of Pe̍h-ōe-jī within Church Communities]. The Journal of Taiwanese Vernacular. 5 (1): 74–97.
- New York Times. September 15, 1974. sec. GN, p. 15. Retrieved 18 December 2014.; quoted in Lin (1999), p. 22
- ^ Iûⁿ (2009), p. 24.
- ^ Sandel (2003), p. 530.
- ^ Wu (2007), p. 1.
- ^ Wu (2007), p. 9.
- ^ Chiung (2005), p. 275.
- ^ Chang (2001), p. 19.
- ^ Chiung (2005), p. 273.
- ^ Loa Iok-sin (2009-02-28). "Activists demand Hoklo exams". Taipei Times. Retrieved 2010-03-31.
- ^ "Premier's comments over language status draws anger". China Post. 2003-09-25. Retrieved 2010-03-31.
- ^ Klöter (2005), p. 98.
- ^ Chang (2001), p. 15.
- ^ a b Klöter (2005), p. 99.
- ^ a b Chung (1996), p. 78.
- ^ Norman (1998), p. 237.
- ^ Klöter (2005), p. 14.
- ^ Klöter (2005), p. 15.
- S2CID 25932808.
- ^ a b Ramsey (1987), p. 109.
- ^ Chang (2001), p. 30.
- ^ Chang (2001), p. 33.
- ^ Campbell (1913), pp. 1–4: Entries under the initial ts have been tallied under the modern spelling of ch.
- ^ Embree (1973).
- ^ Kì (2008), pp. 4–25.
- ^ Klöter (2005), p. 100.
- ^ Klöter (2005), p. 101.
- ^ a b Klöter (2005), p. 102.
- ^ Chang (2001), pp. 86–88.
- ^ Klöter (2005), p. 103.
- ^ Klöter (2005), p. 103–104.
- ^ Klöter (2005), p. 104.
- ^ Chang (2001), p. 134.
- ^ Douglas Carstairs. "Introduction with Remarks on Pronunciation and Instructions for Use." Chinese-English dictionary of the vernacular or spoken language of Amoy, etc. New Edition. Presbyterian Church of England, 1899. p. xi.
- ^ Douglas Carstairs. "Appendix I: Variations of Spelling in Other Books on the Language of Amoy." Chinese-English dictionary of the vernacular or spoken language of Amoy, etc. New Edition. Presbyterian Church of England, 1899. p. 607.
- ^ ISBN 9789671369715
- ^ Barclay et al. (1933), p. 1.
- ^ Tiuⁿ (2004), p. 6.
- ^ Tiuⁿ (2004), p. 8.
- ^ Iûⁿ (2009), p. 23.
- ^ Iûⁿ (2009), p. 29.
- ^ a b c Iûⁿ (2009), p. 20.
- ^ Iûⁿ (2009), p. 11.
- ^ "Combining Diacritical Marks" (PDF). unicode.org. p. 34. Retrieved 2010-07-29.
- ^ a b aiongg (2020-11-22). "aiongg/POJFonts". GitHub – POJ Fonts. Archived from the original on 2021-04-12. Retrieved 2020-12-02.
- ^ a b c d Tseng Gorong (2019-01-11). "談金萱的台羅變音符號設計". justfont blog (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Archived from the original on 2021-04-12. Retrieved 2020-12-02.
- ^ "FAQ – Characters and Combining Marks". unicode.org. Archived from the original on 2021-04-12. Retrieved 2020-12-02.
- ^ Iûⁿ (2009), p. 24
- ^ "Fonts version 3.006 (OTF, TTF, WOFF, WOFF2, Variable)". GitHub. Adobe Systems Incorporated. 2010-09-06. Archived from the original on 2020-12-24. Retrieved 2010-09-06.
- ^ Sidaia (1998), p. 264.
- ^ a b c Klöter (2005), p. 225.
- ^ Ota (2005), p. 21.
- ^ Iûⁿ (2009), p. 10.
- ^ Lin (1999), p. 7.
- ^ Lin (1999), pp. 9–11.
- ^ Klöter (2005), p. 230.
- ^ Chang (2001).
- ^ Sidaia (1998).
- ^ Wu & Chen (2004).
- ^ 潮州字典-韵母表 (in Chinese). Hailufeng. Archived from the original on 2012-07-22. Retrieved 2010-03-10.
- ^ Ota (2005), p. 20.
- ^ Baran (2004), p. 35–5.
- ^ Chiung (2005), p. 300.
- ^ Chiung (2005), p. 301.
- ^ Chiung (2005), p. 272.
- ^ Lin (1999), p. 17.
- ^ Chiung (2007), p. 474.
- ^ Wong-Anan, Nopporn (2009-09-16). "Eyeing China, Singapore sees Mandarin as its future". Reuters. Retrieved 2009-10-31.
- ^ Tseng (2009), p. 2.
- ^ 閩南語鄉土教學確定採台灣閩南語羅馬字拼音 [Southern Min native language teaching to use Taiwan Southern Min Romanization] (in Chinese), Central News Agency
- ^ Tseng (2009), pp. 2–5.
Works cited
- ISBN 957-9512-31-0.
- Band, Edward (1936). Barclay of Formosa. Ginza, Tokyo: Christian Literature Society. OCLC 4386066.
- Baran, Dominika (2004). "Taiwanese don't have written words": Language ideologies and language practice in a Taipei County high school. 2004 International Conference on Taiwanese Romanization. Vol. 2. OCLC 77082548.
- Barclay, Thomas; Lun, Un-jîn; Nĝ, Má-hūi; Lu, Iok-tia (1933). Sin-kū-iok ê Sèng-keng. OCLC 48696650.
- OCLC 867068660.
- ISBN 957-8959-92-3.
- Chang, Yu-hong (2001). Principles of POJ or the Taiwanese Orthography: An Introduction to Its Sound-Symbol Correspondences and Related Issues. Taipei: Crane. ISBN 9789572053072.
- Chiung, Wi-vun Taiffalo (2003). Learning Efficiencies for Different Orthographies: A Comparative Study of Han Characters and Vietnamese Romanization.' (PhD dissertation). University of Texas at Arlington.
- Chiung, Wi-vun Taiffalo (2005). Language, Identity and Decolonization. Tainan: National Cheng Kung University. ISBN 9789578845855.
- Chiung, Wi-vun Taiffalo (2007). Language, Literature and Reimagined Taiwanese Nation. Tainan: National Cheng Kung University. ISBN 9789860097467.
- Chiung, Wi-vun Taiffalo (2011). Nations, Mother Tongues and Phonemic Writing. Tainan: National Cheng Kung University. ISBN 978-986-02-7359-5.
- Chung, Raung-fu (1996). The Segmental Phonology of Southern Min in Taiwan. Taipei: Spoken Language Services. OCLC 36091818.
- Copper, John F. (2007). A Historical Dictionary of Taiwan (Republic of China) (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 9780810856004.
- OCLC 20605114.
- OL 24969218M.
- .
- Embree, Bernard L. M. (1973). A Dictionary of Southern Min: based on current usage in Taiwan and checked against the earlier works of Carstairs Douglas, Thomas Barclay, and Ernest Tipson. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Language Institute. OCLC 2491446.
- Heylen, Ann (2001). "Romanizing Taiwanese: Codification and Standardization of Dictionaries in Southern Min (1837–1923)". In Ku, Wei-ying; De Ridder, Koen (eds.). Authentic Chinese Christianity, Preludes to Its Development: Nineteenth & Twentieth Centuries. Leuven: Leuven University Press. ISBN 9789058671028.
- Iûⁿ Ún-giân; Tiuⁿ Ha̍k-khiam (1999). 台灣福佬話非漢字拼音符號的回顧與分析 [Comparison and Analysis of non-Character Transcription Systems for Taiwanese Holo] (in Chinese). Tainan: National Cheng Kung University. Archived from the original on November 16, 2007. Retrieved 2009-12-17.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Iûⁿ, Ún-giân (2009). Processing Techniques for Written Taiwanese – Tone Sandhi and POS Tagging (Doctoral dissertation). National Taiwan University. OCLC 367595113.
- Kì, Bō͘-hô (2008). 台語教會羅馬字講義 [Notes on Taiwanese Church Romanization]. Tainan: PCT Press. ISBN 9789866947346.
- Klöter, Henning (2002). "The History of Peh-oe-ji". 2002台灣羅馬字教學KAP研究國際學術研討會論文集 [Proceedings of the 2002 International Conference on Taiwanese Romanization Research]. Taipei: Taiwanese Romanization Association.
- Klöter, Henning (2005). Written Taiwanese. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 9783447050937.
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External links
- Media related to Pe̍h-ōe-jī at Wikimedia Commons
General
- "Tai-gu Bang". – Google groupfor Taiwanese language enthusiasts – uses POJ and Chinese characters.
- "Pe̍h-ōe-jī Unicode Correspondence Table" (PDF). Tailingua. 2009. – information on Unicode encodings for POJ text
- "Taiwanese Romanization Association". – group dedicated to the promotion of Taiwanese and Hakka romanization
Input methods
- "Open Vanilla". – Windows and macOS.
- "Taigi-Hakka IME". – Windows-based input method for both Hokkien (with both Pe̍h-ōe-jī and Taiwanese Romanization System input) and Hakka variants.
- "Tai-lo Input Method" (in Chinese). – cross-platforminput method released by Taiwan's Ministry of Education.
- "Transliterator". – extension for the Firefox browser which allows POJ input in-browser.
POJ-compliant fonts
- "Charis SIL". bold, italic, and bold italic.
- "DejaVu". Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. – available in serif, sans-serif, and monospace.
- "Doulos SIL". SIL International. 2 October 2014. – Times New Roman-style serif.
- "Gentium". SIL International. 2 October 2014. – open source serif.
- "Linux Libertine". – GPL and OPL-licensed serif.
- "Linux Libertine G". – GPL and OPL-licensed serif.
- "Taigi Unicode". – serif font specifically designed for POJ.
Texts and dictionaries
- Min Nan Chinese edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- "Taiwanese bibliography". Archived from the original on 2006-08-18. – list of books in Taiwanese, including those written in POJ.
- "Memory of Written Taiwanese". Archived from the original on 2009-11-29. – collection of Taiwanese texts in various orthographies, including many in POJ.
- "Tai-Hoa Dictionary". – dictionary which includes POJ, Taiwanese in Chinese characters, and Mandarin characters. Some English definitions also available.
- Exhibits: Taiwanese Romanization Peh-oe-ji – sample images of various older POJ texts.
- Chinese Character to Pe̍h-ōe-jī Online Transliterator, archived from the original on 2017-05-11 – Transliterates Southern Min Characters and Mandarin Characters to POJ.