Peasants' revolt in Palestine
Peasant's Revolt of 1834 | |
---|---|
Part of the ) | |
Result |
Revolt suppressed
|
Abd al-Hadi clan of Arraba
Abu Ghosh clan of Jerusalem region (From July 1834)
Supported by
Urban notables of Nablus, Jerusalem, Hebron and Safed
Rural clans and Bedouin tribes of Palestine
- Qasim, Jabal Nablus
- Simhan family of Ras Karkar
- Bani Zeid
- Abu Ghosh clan of Jerusalem region (Until July 1834)
- Madi family of Acre region
- 'Amr tribe of Hebron Hills
- Hawwara tribe of Galilee
- Ta'amirah and Fawaghrah tribes of Bethlehem region
- Awawna and Jabarat tribes of Gaza region
Supported by
- al-Karak
Muhammad Ali
Ibrahim Pasha
Salim Pasha
Rashad Bey †
Mustafa Bey (WIA)
Husayn Abd al-Hadi
Qasim al-Ahmad
Yusuf al-Qasim
Isa al-Amr
Abdullah al-Jarrar
Isa al-Barqawi
Mas'ud al-Madi
Isa al-Madi
Ismail ibn Simhan
Abd al-Jabir Barghouti
Aqil Agha
Salim Atawna †
Subh Shawkah
Ismail Majali
10,000 peasants deported to Egypt
Total (rebels and civilians): about 10,000 killed
The Peasants' Revolt
As part of
By the 20th century, the revolt was largely absent in the Palestinian
Background
In consolidating his power, Muhammad Ali, the rebel governor of
A new fleet and army was raised under Muhammad Ali, and on 31 October 1831, his son
Egyptian economic and political policies alienated four broad and influential factions in Palestine, namely the
In late 1832, Qasim al-Ahmad, leader of the Qasim clan and the chief of the nahiya (subdistrict) of
The Abu Ghosh clan, based in the Jerusalem-area village of Qaryat al-Inab, traditionally served as toll collectors for the Jerusalem-Jaffa road, and were increasingly considered by Ibrahim Pasha to be extortionists.[10] They were targeted by the authorities in 1833. The clan's leadership was arrested, including their head sheikh Ibrahim Abu Ghosh, and were temporarily sentenced to forced labor in Acre.[14] Relations between the authorities and the Bedouin tribes of south-central Palestine were also antagonistic. Traditionally, during Ottoman rule, the Bedouin were allowed to collect tribute payments from travelers and the inhabitants of the area in return for services to the state. Ibrahim Pasha saw the Bedouin as raiders who exceeded their privileges and abolished this practice. He also imposed additional conditions on the Bedouin, primarily the requirement of transporting grain for Egyptian troops in return for the right to graze livestock.[10] In 1833, the Dura-based Amr tribe of the Hebron Hills, which was headed by Isa Amr and Abd al-Rahman Amr, was targeted in a military campaign by Ibrahim Pasha. The Abu Ghosh, the Ras Karkar-based Simhan clan, and the Amr tribe were essentially at war with the Egyptians.[14]
The imposition of new taxation categories that were a departure from both secular
Revolt
Beginning of revolt
In retaliation for his dismissal and his son's practical demotion, Qasim al-Ahmad organized the
Following the declaration of the notables, a meeting of local sheikhs (chiefs) from Jabal Nablus was hosted by Qasim in his clan's
The uprising spread to Jerusalem, Hebron and other mountainous areas in the area roughly corresponding with the present-day
Rebel capture of Jerusalem
While there are no known records of military planning, in early May the notables of Nablus, Jerusalem and Hebron coordinated an assault against Jerusalem. On 8 May armed peasants from Nablus, Jerusalem, Hebron and Gaza besieged the city and about 10,000 fighters attempted to breach the walls. They were initially repulsed by the Egyptian garrison. An earthquake occurred in the city on 13 May and fighting ceased for several days.[18]
On 19 May, some residents of Jerusalem's Silwan neighborhood informed rebel leaders that they could use a sewer tunnel that ran from the Dung Gate to a mill in the Jewish Quarter, to clandestinely enter Jerusalem.[18] The next day,[19] 36 rebels (peasants and Jerusalemites) under the leadership of Sheikh Subh Shawkah, chief of the Bethlehem-area Fawaghirah tribe,[20] entered the city via the tunnel and then opened the Dung Gate to allow thousands of rebels inside the walled city.[19] The Egyptian commander of the city, Rashad Bey, subsequently withdrew his garrison into Jerusalem's citadel to take up positions against the incoming rebels.[21]
The rebels, who were joined by some of the city's poorer Muslim residents, began to loot the homes of Egyptian officers. In response, some 500 Egyptian troops left the citadel to pursue the rebels, but began to loot homes in the city in revenge before Rashad Bey ordered them to cease. Fifty rebels, sixteen residents and five soldiers were killed in the confrontations of 20 May. The following day, the rebels attacked the city and after a brief counterattack, Rashad Bey and his men returned to the citadel. Afterward, residents sympathetic to the revolt opened the
The rebels besieged and fired at the citadel and a wave of mass looting followed for the next three days. Virtually every Muslim, Jewish and Christian-owned shop was raided and damaged.[21] Because the Muslim shops were the last to be plundered, their owners were able to salvage most of their valuable merchandise.[22] A Greek monk named Spyridon who resided in the city wrote that once the homes of Egyptian officers were looted, the rebels "began to loot the shops of the Jews, the Christians, the Franks, and then the Muslims. The grocers, the shoemakers and every other dealer suffered alike. Within two or three days there was not one shop intact in the market".[22] Protests by some citizens against the looting went unheeded as they were outnumbered by rebels. After the market areas were plundered, rebels began to loot the homes of Christians, which had been abandoned during the chaos, despite prohibitions by rebel leaders and local sheikhs. The rebel leadership warned that such actions would provoke the protestations of Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II, who was at war with Muhammad Ali. On 23 May, all state-owned supply warehouses and granaries were looted.[22]
Battles in Jerusalem and its environs
On 24 May Ibrahim Pasha departed from Jaffa with 9,000 soldiers and began his march toward recapturing Jerusalem. The next day, thousands of rebels left the city to harry Ibrahim Pasha's forces on their route.[22] A trip that would have normally taken five hours lasted two days as rebels attacked Egyptian troops, inflicting some 1,500 casualties, including at least 500 fatalities. When Ibrahim Pasha reached Jerusalem, he did not enter the city immediately and instead stationed his forces at his headquarters in Mount Zion, which overlooked Jerusalem. On 28 May, he offered an amnesty to any rebel who surrendered, but none did. With 3,000 soldiers he personally commanded a pursuit of rebels inside the city, resulting in the deaths of about 300 rebels and the capture of some 500. Most were promptly released, but seventeen were jailed.[23]
On 30 May Ibrahim Pasha re-entered Jerusalem and the next day Egyptian troops attacked Beit Jala, a nearby Christian village. A reported 33 men and women were killed there because of their alleged involvement in the looting of Egyptian property. The purported revenge killings were halted by Ibrahim Pasha, but the residents' livestock was seized. The next day, over 1,000 rebels from the Ta'amirah tribe entered the adjacent town of Bethlehem to protect their families and the Christian inhabitants from potentially experiencing the same fate as Beit Jala. They refrained from directly confronting Ibrahim Pasha, however. Bethlehem's Muslim Quarter was destroyed by the Egyptian army and its inhabitants disarmed.[24] This move was apparently a punishment for the killing of a favored loyalist of Ibrahim Pasha.[25] Reverend William McClure Thomson wrote "this terrible vengeance failed to quell the turbulent spirit of the people. They are ever distinguished in the great feasts at Jerusalem by their fierce and lawless manners, and if any row occurs they are sure to have a hand in it."[24] The peasant rebels had frequently requested from the Christians of Bethlehem that they fight alongside them against Ibrahim Pasha's troops. The Christians refused, citing their religious beliefs and political status, and sheltered in the town's monasteries for safety. On 3 June, the rebels decided to attack the monasteries and looted the city.[26] On 4 June rebels launched an attack on Ibrahim Pasha and about 4,000 of his men at Solomon's Pools near al-Khader.[23]
In Jerusalem meanwhile, Rashad Bey and his garrison (numbering 1,500 men) were assaulted by rebel forces. Rashad Bey and 800 Egyptian soldiers were killed, while hundreds more were captured by rebels and taken to Hebron. Ibrahim Pasha had since returned to Mount Zion and the rebels attempted to lay siege against him and his troops.[23]
Spread of rebellion and truce negotiations
By 8 June, Nablus was in full-scale rebellion as were the coastal towns of
When the notables of Jerusalem learned that Muhammad Ali was set to arrive in Palestine with reinforcements, they offered to mediate a truce between the Egyptians and the rebel leaders through the mufti Tahir Effendi al-Husayni, who had since been released. The leader of the rebels in the Hebron Hills, Isa al-Amr, informed al-Husayni of three conditions for a truce to be reached: the pardoning of all rebels, the cancellation of conscription orders in return for the payment of 1,000 qirsh per male, and the abolition of the new taxation category. The terms were rejected by Ibrahim Pasha, but he continued negotiations with al-Husayni through Husayn Abd al-Hadi, the governor of Sidon.[34]
Qasim al-Ahmad, head of the rebels in Jabal Nablus, then requested a pardon from Ibrahim Pasha so that he could negotiate an end to the fighting himself. Ibrahim agreed and with guarantees of safety by al-Husayni and Abd al-Hadi, Qasim met with Ibrahim in late June. The latter admonished Qasim for his betrayal of Muhammad Ali, to which Qasim responded with an apology and an explanation that his hand was forced. By the end of the meeting, the two reconciled and Ibrahim reappointed Qasim as mutassalim of both Nablus and Jerusalem.[34]
However, some time after Ibrahim's summit with Qasim, Muhammad Ali had several prominent Jerusalemite notables, including Tahir Effendi al-Husayni, Umar Effendi al-Husayni, Muhammad Ali al-Husayni, Muhammad Ali al-Khalidi, Sheikh Abdullah Budayri and Muhammad Abul Saud arrested and sentenced to exile in Egypt where they would be incarcerated.
Defeat of the rebels in Jabal Nablus
Qasim responded to the arrest of the Jerusalemite notables by cancelling his truce with Muhammad Ali and rallying the rebels of Jabal Nablus. He asserted that the truce negotiations had been a ruse to hold off the rebels until the arrival of reinforcements from Egypt. The rebels' strategy in Jabal Nablus was to split their forces (30,000 fighters) into three divisions and fight Ibrahim Pasha's troops on three fronts: Ras al-Ayn, the approaches of the Galilee, and Nablus city. On 24 June Bedouin not directly affiliated to Qasim's irregulars attacked Ibrahim Pasha's camp in Palestine's coastal plain. Four days of battle then followed between the rebels and Ibrahim Pasha's men at Ras al-Ayn, until the fortress in that village was captured by the Egyptians on 28 June.[38]
On 30 June Muhammad Ali landed in Jaffa with 15,000 troops from Egypt and on 2 July he convened with his son Ibrahim Pasha at Ramla,[34] which was captured along with Lydda by Egyptian commander Salim Pasha who led Ali's military convoy.[1] In Ramla, the arrested Jerusalemite notables were assembled. Ali ordered the arrest of rebel leaders Qasim, his sons Yusuf and Muhammad, Abdullah Jarrar and Isa al-Barqawi. Ali then instructed his ally Bashir Shihab II of Mount Lebanon to back Egyptian forces in the Sidon Eyalet. Meanwhile, Sulayman Abd al-Hadi and Ibrahim Abu Ghosh requested the release of Jabr Abu Ghosh from prison. In return for the allegiance of the Abu Ghosh clan, Ali heeded their request, released Jabr and appointed him mutassalim of Jerusalem in place of Muhammad al-Qasim, who had defected to the rebels at the start of the revolt.[34]
Jabr immediately commenced an operation to disarm the people of the Jerusalem region, ordering the execution of anyone found with a weapon. Ali personally ordered the decapitations of the mutasallims of Ramla and Lydda and of the headmen of rebellious villages near Jaffa. Acre was recaptured by the Egyptians and 2,000 of its inhabitants were killed in the process.[40] After receiving personal assurances from Husayn Abd al-Hadi that he would enforce Ibrahim Pasha's rule in Palestine, Ali departed for Egypt on 6 July.[40][41]
Ibrahim Pasha continued his expedition against the rebels of Jabal Nablus, pursuing them at
Following the rebels' rout at Deir al-Ghusun on 14 July, Ibrahim Pasha's troops proceeded to Nablus unhindered,
Rebel surrender in Galilee
When Muhammad Ali was in Palestine, he requested military assistance from Emir Bashir of Mount Lebanon, via an emissary, Emir Bashir's son Amin. In late July, Emir Bashir led his forces toward Galilee, but before advancing further southward, he made a number of proclamations advising that the rebels of Safad surrender. The rebel leadership in Safad agreed to negotiate and sent Sheikh Salih al-Tarshihi as an emissary to Bashir to arrange a meeting. Bashir invited the leaders of Safad to the village of Bint Jbeil where they agreed to surrender and submit to Egyptian authority. Afterward, Bashir arrived in Safad where he arranged for rebel leaders from nearby areas to surrender as well.[1]
Battle of Hebron
Qasim and some of his men headed south to the Hebron Hills after their defeat in Jabal Nablus. They confronted Ibrahim Pasha's troops at Solomon's Pools,[47] but were defeated after brief clashes.[48] Afterward they fled to the city of Hebron.[47] On 4 August Ibrahim Pasha's troops besieged the city, leveling its fort by cannon fire. The fort was never restored. They then ransacked the city, and decisively defeated Qasim's forces.[49] According to historian Roger Heacock, the rebels and the townspeople "fought bravely and desperately, but they suffered severely from artillery fire."[48]
Mass killings and rapes by the Egyptian troops took place in Hebron.[45] About 500 people were killed, and 750 men were taken as conscripts.[50] Another 120 adolescents were taken by Egyptian officers "to do with as they wanted", according to historian Baruch Kimmerling.[45] According to Joseph Schwarz, a historian and rabbi who wrote A Descriptive Geography and Brief Historical Sketch of Palestine in 1850, most of the Muslim population managed to flee beforehand to the nearby hills. Some of the Jewish community stayed behind, and during the general pillage of the town, twelve of them were killed. The majority however, like most of the Jews of Safad and Tiberias, fled to Jerusalem.[51]
Execution of rebel leadership
Qasim, his sons Yusuf and Muhammad, and Isa al-Barqawi fled Hebron during the fighting and headed east across the
After his capture, Qasim, Arsab al-Kahol, one of Qasim's lieutenants, and al-Barqawi were publicly executed in
Aftermath
The 1834 revolt and the immediate aftermath reduced the male population of Palestine by about one-fifth. This decrease is attributed to the large numbers of peasants who were either deported to Egypt to work in manufacturing, drafted into Egypt's military, or abandoned their villages and farms to join the Bedouin nomadic populations.[53] Around 10,000 peasants were deported to Egypt and the general population was disarmed.[12] The conscription orders were extended beyond the Muslim population to the local Christians. Taxes were also extended from landed property to include livestock as well. As Ibrahim consolidated his hold over Palestine and disarmed the population, banditry by local tribesmen and civil strife was largely eliminated.[54]
Abandoned or rebellious villages were destroyed by Ibrahim Pasha's troops, which prevented their inhabitants from returning.[53] Ibrahim's army razed 16 villages before taking Nablus.[12] He also forced the heads of the Nablus clans to leave for nearby villages.[55][56] The absence of the traditional local leadership due to exile or execution left Palestine's urban population to be financially exploited by both the government and its local opponents.[53] The imprisoned headmen of villages were replaced by their sons, although Ibrahim Pasha demoted them as nawatir (watchmen) instead of the higher-ranking title of mukhtar.[41] Qasim's son Mahmud replaced him and the popularity of his father among the peasantry compelled the rural chiefs of Jabal Nablus to request from the government that Mahmud replace Sulaiman Abd al-Hadi as mutasallim of Nablus.[57]
Ottoman rule was subsequently reinstated in 1840 after Acre was recaptured with the critical support of the
Combatants and arms
Rebels
The peasants from the mountainous regions of Palestine and Bedouin (nomadic) warriors constituted the bulk of the rebels' forces. Most adult males among the peasantry owned a rifle (typically of the matchlock variety, ownership of which normally transferred from generation to generation) or less frequently, a pistol. The latter were often used in urban environments where they were more effective. A wide array of
The most active rebel forces hailed from Jabal Nablus.
The combat that peasant men had engaged in prior to the revolt was restricted to the vicinity in which they lived. During armed conflicts, they would often fight for a short period before returning to cultivate their lands, which remained their main preoccupation. When their service was needed, they were commanded by a local chief who in turn was subordinate to a regional leader. Most armed conflict revolved around the chiefs' bids for local influence and control or protection of villages from Bedouin plundering. There were also instances where peasant fighters would be assembled to back Ottoman authority in the face of local or external challengers, such as during the 1799 Napoleonic invasion, or against Ottoman authority when it interfered in the unofficial local autonomy that was enjoyed in the mountain regions. In most of the conflicts in which the peasant fighters participated, they fought alongside their kinsmen or neighbors.[1]
Egyptian Army and allies
The Egyptian Army in Palestine was divided between infantry and cavalry regiments and consisted of thousands of professional soldiers, known as nezzam. During the revolt, this force was buttressed by over 15,000 reinforcements who arrived with Muhammad Ali, bringing the number of Egyptian soldiers in Palestine to well over 20,000. While its army did most of the fighting, Egypt also commissioned or requested the participation of various irregulars. In the southern Gaza region, Egypt dispatched Bedouin from the tribes of Awlad Ali, al-Jamaiyat, al-Jahma, and al-Fawayd to pursue rebels and raid their villages. In the northern Galilee region, towards the end of the revolt, the forces of Emir Bashir were mobilized upon Ibrahim Pasha's request, but their mobilization sufficed in convincing the northern rebels to surrender. Thus, Bashir's Lebanon-based forces saw no combat. Local peasant fighters under Husayn Abd al-Hadi also fought alongside the Egyptian army, particularly during the final battles for Jabal Nablus.[1]
In contrast with the peasants' arsenals, Egypt's military possessed modern arms and artillery. The use of cannons on open battlefields in particular inflicted heavy losses on the rebels. Egypt's army also possessed considerable organization in contrast to the lack of military coordination between rebel forces in different regions.[1]
Legacy
The revolt in Palestine was markedly different from the revolts that sprung up elsewhere in the Egyptian-ruled Levant, such as the
"Palestine" was a term that was used infrequently by its inhabitants at the time of the revolt,
Israeli historian Benny Morris disputed the claim by Kimmerling and Migdal that the revolt was the birth of the Palestinian people writing:
Rather idiosyncratically, Kimmerling and Migdal point to a peasant revolt in Palestine against the Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali in 1834 as the moment when the Palestinian people was born. The peasants (and the townspeople) refused to supply the Egyptians with the conscripts that they demanded. Within months, the rebels, who did not demand independence or "Palestinian rights" (if pressed to identify their "national" affiliation, they surely would have said they were Ottoman subjects, or "Arabs," or perhaps "residents of the Province of Syria"), were crushed, leaving no "national" values or tradition as a heritage. But Kimmerling and Migdal have it that this was the first of the succession of revolts against foreign occupiers—against the British from 1936 to 1939 and against the Israelis from 1987 to 1991 and from 2000 to 2003—that were to be the main expressions of Palestinian nationalism."[66]
Israeli scholar Shimon Shamir views the Egyptian period in Palestine as the "first application of the concept of the territorial state ... This was the inception of the modern history of Palestine."[6]
The revolt represented a moment of political unity in Palestine. However, the ultimate intention of the notables and rebel leaders was to force out the Egyptian army and reinstate Ottoman rule as a means of restoring the Ottoman-era standards that defined the relationship between the government and the governed. These standards were made up of the religious laws, administrative codes and local norms and traditions that were disrupted by Egyptian reforms.[4] The people of Palestine did not resist Ibrahim Pasha's conquest of Palestine in 1831 as they were decreed to by the Sublime Porte and only acted against his authority three years later when he decisively interfered in their local affairs by way of conscription and further taxation. This constituted the prime motivation for the revolt, rather than loyalty to the Ottomans. The latter did not provide more benefits to the population than offered by Muhammad Ali's rule, but unlike Ali, they largely left the peasants and the local elite to their own devices, not demanding much more than the traditional taxes and nominal acceptance of the sultanate's authority.[67]
Palestinian historiography
In general, 20th-century historians from Palestine and the Arab world, and Palestinian and
By the 20th century, the revolt was also largely absent in the Palestinian
Due to the aforementioned factors, the revolt was often considered to either be a manipulation of the commoners by a reactionary elite against modernization,[69][70] a successful Ottoman bid to hamper Egypt's efforts to liberate and unify its Arab lands,[70] or was sidelined.[71] The concept that the revolt's diverse participants were acting based on their own interests and actual grievances rather than manipulation was largely ignored in Palestinian historiography until recent decades.[72]
See also
- List of conflicts in the Near East
- 1936–39 Arab revolt in Palestine
- 1834 looting of Safed
References
- ^ ISBN 978-2-35159-265-6
- ^ Baer, 1982, p. 254
- ^ Grossman, 2011, p. 47
- ^ a b c Rood, 2004, p. 139
- ^ a b c d e Manna, 2009, p. 93
- ^ a b c d e f g h Kimmerling, 2012, "The Forgotten Revolt".
- ^ Ayubi, 1996, p. 104
- ^ a b Yazbak, 1998, pp. 18-19.
- ^ Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid-Marsot, Egypt in the reign of Muhammad Ali, Cambridge University Press, 1983
- ^ a b c d Rood, 2004, p. 123
- ^ a b c d Jerusalem Academic Press, 1972, p. 266.
- ^ a b c d e f Beinin, 2001, p. 33
- ^ Doumani, 1995, p. 46
- ^ a b c Rood, 2004, p. 124
- ^ a b c Rood, 2004, p. 125
- ^ Rood, 2004, p. 126
- ^ Ayyad, 1999, pp. 11-12.
- ^ a b c d Rood, 2004, p. 127
- ^ a b Rood, 2004, pp. 127-128.
- ^ Macalister and Masterman, 1906, p. 38
- ^ a b Rood, 2004, p. 128
- ^ a b c d e Rood, 2004, p. 129
- ^ a b c Rood, 2004, p. 130
- ^ a b Thomson, 1859, vol 2, p. 508
- ^ History of Bethlehem Archived 2009-02-25 at the Wayback Machine Bethlehem Municipality.
- ^ a b Baer, 1982, p. 282
- ^ Tristram, 1865, p. 142
- ^ Baer, 1982, p. 303
- ^ Kimmerling, 2012, p. 67
- ^ a b Rood, 2004, p. 131
- ^ Kinglake, 1864, p. 291
- ^ Yaari, Schen and Halevy-Levin, 1958, p. 37.
- ^ Finkelstein, 1960, p. 679.
- ^ a b c d Rood, 2004, p. 132
- ^ Rood, 2004, pp. 132-133.
- ^ Baer, 1982, p. 284
- ^ a b Rustum, 1938, p. 70.
- ^ a b c Rood, 2004, p. 133
- ^ Yazbak, 1998, p. 147
- ^ a b c d e f Rood, 2004, p. 134
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Macalister and Masterman, 1906, p. 39
- ^ a b c d e Robinson and Smith, 1841, vol 3, pp. 135–136
- ^ a b c Rustum, 1938, p. 75
- ^ Rood, 2004, pp. 133-134.
- ^ a b c Kimmerling and Migdal, 2003, p. 11
- ^ Heacock, 2008, p. 89.
- ^ a b Smith and Kiepert, p. 93.
- ^ a b c Heacock, 2008, p. 90.
- ^ Sharon, 2013, p. 18
- ^ Robinson, 1856, p. 88.
- ^ Schwarz, 1850 p. 399
- ^ a b c Rogan, 1995, pp. 31-2
- ^ a b c Rood, 2004, pp. 142-143.
- ^ a b c Macalister and Masterman, 1906, p. 40
- ^ Doumani, 1995, Chapter: Egyptian rule, 1831-1840
- ^ Isseroff, Ami. "The Growth of Palestinian Arab Identity". MidEastWeb. Retrieved 2008-04-24.
- ^ a b Rood, Judith (Summer 2006). "The Time the Peasants Entered Jerusalem: The Revolt Against Ibrahim Pasha in the Islamic Court Sources" (PDF). Jerusalem Quarterly (27). Institute of Palestine Studies: 39. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2015-06-16.
- ^ Macalister and Masterman, 1906, p. 41
- ^ Encyclopedia Judaica, Jerusalem, Keter, 1978, Volume 9, "State of Israel (Historical Survey)", pp. 304-306.
- ^ Robinson, 1856, p. 482.
- ^ Mattar, 2005, p. 347
- ^ Schölch, 1984, p. 462.
- ^ a b Manna, 2009, p. 85
- ^ Manna, 2009, p. 87
- ^ Kimmerling and Migdal, 2003, p. 7
- ^ "The Rejection". The New Republic.
- ^ Manna, 2009, p. 99
- ^ Manna, 2009, p. 95
- ^ a b Manna, 2009, p. 92
- ^ a b Manna, 2009, p. 96
- ^ Manna, 2009, pp. 94-95.
- ^ Manna, 2009, pp. 97-98.
Bibliography
- Ayyad, Abd al-Aziz (1999). Arab nationalism and the Palestinians, 1850-1939. Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs.
- ISBN 978-1-85043-828-1.
- ISBN 978-0-7146-3126-4.
- ISBN 978-0-521-62903-4.
- ISBN 978-0-520-20370-9.
- Finkelstein, L. (1960). The Jews: Their History, Culture, and Religion. Harper.
- Grossman, David (2011). Rural Arab Demography and Early Jewish Settlement in Palestine: Distribution and Population Density During the Late Ottoman and Early Mandate Periods. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4128-4454-3.
- Heacock, Roger (2008). Temps et espaces en Palestine: flux et résistances identitaires. Institut français du Proche-Orient. ISBN 978-2-35159-074-4.
- Jerusalem Academic Press (1972). Asian and African Studies. Vol. 5. Jerusalem Academic Press.
- ISBN 978-0-231-51249-7.
- ISBN 978-0-674-01129-8.
- Kinglake, A.W. (1864). Eothen. Harrison and Sons. p. 291.
- .
- ISBN 978-0-8160-5764-1.
- ISBN 978-977-416-247-3.
- Schölch, Alexander (1984). "The Decline of Local Power in Palestine after 1856: The Case of ʿAqīl Aġā". Die Welt des Islams. New Series. 23 (1/4). BRILL: 458–475. JSTOR 1570684.
- Robinson, E.; Smith, E. (1841). Biblical Researches in Palestine, Mount Sinai and Arabia Petraea: A Journal of Travels in the year 1838. Vol. 3. Boston: Crocker & Brewster.
- Smith, E.; Kiepert, H. (1874). Biblical Researches in Palestine, and in the Adjacent Regions: A Journal of Travels in the Year 1838. Vol. 2. Crocker & Brewster.
- Robinson, E. (1856). Biblical Researches in Palestine and the Adjacent Regions: A Journal of Travels in the Years 1838 & 1852. Vol. 2. Murray.
- ISBN 978-0-521-89223-0.
- Rood, Judith Mendelsohn (2004). Sacred Law in the Holy City: The Khedival Challenge To The Ottomans As Seen From Jerusalem, 1829-1841. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-13810-0.
- Rustum, A. (1938). The Royal Archives of Egypt and the Disturbances in Palestine, 1834. American University of Beirut Press.
- Schwarz, Joseph (1850). Issac Leeser (Translator) (ed.). A Descriptive Geography and Brief Historical Sketch of Palestine. Philadelphia: A. Hart.)
{{cite book}}
:|editor=
has generic name (help - ISBN 978-90-04-25097-0.
- Spyridon, S. N. (1938). "Annals of Palestine". Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society. XVIII: 65–111.
- Thomson, W.M. (1859). The Land and the Book: Or, Biblical Illustrations Drawn from the Manners and Customs, the Scenes and Scenery, of the Holy Land. Vol. 2 (1 ed.). New York: Harper & brothers.
- Tristram, H.B. (1865). Land of Israel, A Journal of travel in Palestine, undertaken with special reference to its physical character. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.
- Yaari, Abraham; Schen, Israel; Halevy-Levin, Isaac (1958). The Goodly Heritage: Memoirs Describing the Life of the Jewish Community of Eretz Yisrael from the Seventeenth to the Twentieth Centuries. Youth and Hechalutz Dept. of the Zionist Organization.
- ISBN 978-90-04-11051-9.