Peat
Peat (
Peatlands, particularly bogs, are the primary source of peat;[6] although less common, other wetlands, including
Peat is used by gardeners and for
Peat is not a
Formation
Peat forms when plant material does not fully decay in acidic and anaerobic conditions. It is composed mainly of wetland vegetation: principally bog plants including mosses, sedges, and shrubs. As it accumulates, the peat holds water. This slowly creates wetter conditions that allow the area of wetland to expand. Peatland features can include ponds, ridges, and raised bogs.[6] The characteristics of some bog plants actively promote bog formation. For example, sphagnum mosses actively secrete tannins, which preserve organic material. Sphagnum also have special water-retaining cells, known as hyaline cells, which can release water ensuring the bogland remains constantly wet which helps promote peat production.[20]
Most modern peat
Types of peat material
Peat material is either fibric, hemic, or sapric. Fibric peats are the least decomposed and consist of intact fibre. Hemic peats are partially decomposed and sapric are the most decomposed.[23]
Phragmites peat are composed of reed grass, Phragmites australis, and other grasses. It is denser than many other types of peat.
Engineers may describe a soil as peat which has a relatively high percentage of organic material. This soil is problematic because it exhibits poor
Peatlands distribution
In a widely cited article, Joosten and Clarke (2002) described peatlands or mires (which they claim are the same)[Notes 2][1] as
the most widespread of all wetland types in the world, representing 50 to 70% of global wetlands. They cover over 4 million square kilometres [1.5 million square miles] or 3% of the land and freshwater surface of the planet. In these ecosystems are found one third of the world's soil carbon and 10% of global freshwater resources. These ecosystems are characterized by the unique ability to accumulate and store dead organic matter from Sphagnum and many other non-moss species, as peat, under conditions of almost permanent water saturation. Peatlands are adapted to the extreme conditions of high water and low oxygen content, of toxic elements and low availability of plant nutrients. Their water chemistry varies from alkaline to acidic. Peatlands occur on all continents, from the tropical to boreal and Arctic zones from sea level to high alpine conditions.
A more recent estimate from an improved global peatland map, PEATMAP,[24] based on a meta-analysis of geospatial information at global, regional and national levels puts global coverage slightly higher than earlier peatland inventories at 4.23 million square kilometres (1.63 million square miles) approximately 2.84% of the world land area.[25] In Europe, peatlands extend to about 515,000 km2 (199,000 sq mi).[26] About 60% of the world's wetlands are made of peat.
Peat deposits are found in many places around the world, including northern Europe and North America. The North American peat deposits are principally found in Canada and the Northern United States. Some of the world's largest peatlands include the West Siberian Lowland, the Hudson Bay Lowlands, and the Mackenzie River Valley.[27] There is less peat in the Southern Hemisphere, in part because there is less land. The world's largest tropical peatland is located in Africa (the Democratic Republic of Congo).[28] In addition, the vast Magellanic Moorland in South America (Southern Patagonia/Tierra del Fuego) is an extensive peat-dominated landscape.[27] Peat can be found in New Zealand, Kerguelen, the Falkland Islands, and Indonesia (Kalimantan [Sungai Putri, Danau Siawan, Sungai Tolak], Rasau Jaya (West Kalimantan), and Sumatra). Indonesia has more tropical peatlands and mangrove forests than any other nation on earth, but Indonesia is losing wetlands by 100,000 hectares (250,000 acres) per year.[29] A catalog of the peat research collection at the University of Minnesota Duluth provides references to research on worldwide peat and peatlands.[30]
About 7% of all peatlands have been exploited for agriculture and forestry.[31] Under certain conditions, peat will turn into lignite coal over geologic periods of time.
General uses
Fuel
Peat can be used as fuel once dried. Traditionally, peat is cut by hand and left to dry in the sun. In many countries, including Ireland and Scotland, peat was traditionally stacked to dry in rural areas and used for cooking and domestic heating. This tradition can be traced back to the Roman period.[32] For industrial uses,[citation needed] companies may use pressure to extract water from the peat, which is soft and easily compressed.
Agriculture
In Sweden, farmers use dried peat to absorb excrement from cattle that are wintered indoors.[citation needed] The most important property of peat is retaining moisture in container soil when it is dry while preventing the excess of water from killing roots when it is wet. Peat can store nutrients although it is not fertile itself – it is polyelectrolytic with a high ion-exchange capacity due to its oxidized lignin.[citation needed] Peat is discouraged as a soil amendment by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, since 2003.[33] Whilst bark or coir-based peat-free potting soil mixes are on the rise, particularly in the UK, peat is still used as raw material for horticulture in some other European countries, Canada, as well as parts of the United States.
Drinking water
Peatland can also be an important source of drinking water providing nearly 4% of all potable water stored in reservoirs. In the UK, 43% of the population receives drinking water sourced from peatlands, with the number climbing to 68% in Ireland. Catchments containing peatlands are the main source of water for large cities, including Dublin.[34]
Metallurgy
Peat wetlands also used to have a degree of metallurgical importance in the Early Middle Ages, being the primary source of bog iron used to create swords and armour.
Flood mitigation
Many peat swamps along the coast of Malaysia serve as a natural means of flood mitigation, with any overflow being absorbed by the peat, provided forests are still present to prevent peat fires.[35][36]
Freshwater aquaria
Peat is sometimes used in freshwater aquaria. It is seen most commonly in soft water or blackwater river systems such as those mimicking the Amazon River basin. In addition to being soft in texture and therefore suitable for demersal (bottom-dwelling) species such as Corydoras catfish, peat is reported to have a number of other beneficial functions in freshwater aquaria. It softens water by acting as an ion exchanger; it also contains substances that are beneficial for plants, and for the reproductive health of fishes. Peat can prevent algae growth and kill microorganisms. Peat often stains the water yellow or brown due to the leaching of tannins.[37]
Balneotherapy
Peat is widely used in balneotherapy (the use of bathing to treat disease).[38] Many traditional spa treatments include peat as part of peloids. Such health treatments have an enduring tradition in European countries including Poland, the Czech Republic, Germany, and Austria. Some of these old spas date back to the 18th century and are still active today. The most common types of peat application in balneotherapy are peat muds, poultices, and suspension baths.[39]
Peat archives
Authors Rydin and Jeglum in Biology of Habitats described the concept of peat archives, a phrase coined by influential peatland scientist Harry Godwin in 1981.[40][41][42]
In a peat profile there is a fossilized record of changes over time in the vegetation, pollen, spores, animals (from microscopic to the giant elk), and archaeological remains that have been deposited in place, as well as pollen, spores and particles brought in by wind and weather. These remains are collectively termed the peat archives.
— Rydin, 2013
In Quaternary Palaeoecology, first published in 1980, Birks and Birks described how paleoecological studies "of peat can be used to reveal what plant communities were present (locally and regionally), what time period each community occupied, how environmental conditions changed, and how the environment affected the ecosystem in that time and place."[41][43]
Scientists continue to compare modern
Bog bodies
Naturally mummified human bodies, often called "bog bodies" have been found in various places in Scotland, England, Ireland, and especially northern Germany and Denmark. They are almost perfectly preserved by the tanning properties of the acidic water, as well as by the antibiotic properties of the organic component sphagnan.[47] A famous example is the Tollund Man in Denmark. Having been discovered in 1950 after being mistaken for a recent murder victim, he was exhumed for scientific purposes and dated to have lived during the 4th century BC. Prior to that, another bog body, the Elling Woman, had been discovered in 1938 in the same bog about 60 m (200 ft) from the Tollund Man. She is believed to have lived during the late 3rd century BC and was a ritual sacrifice. In the Bronze and Iron Ages, people used peat bogs for rituals to nature gods and spirits.[48]
Environmental and ecological issues
The distinctive ecological conditions of peat wetlands provide a habitat for distinctive fauna and flora. For example,
Around half of the area of northern peatlands is
One characteristic of peat is the bioaccumulation of metals concentrated in the peat. Accumulated mercury is of significant environmental concern.[59]
Peat drainage
Large areas of organic wetland (peat) soils are currently drained for agriculture, forestry, and peat extraction (i.e. through canals
Peat fires
Peat can be a major fire hazard and is not extinguished by light rain.[64] Peat fires may burn for great lengths of time, or smoulder underground and reignite after winter if an oxygen source is present.
Peat has a high carbon content and can burn under low moisture conditions. Once ignited by the presence of a heat source (e.g., a
Despite the damage that the burning of raw peat can cause, bogs are naturally subject to wildfires and depend on the wildfires to keep woody competition from lowering the water table and shading out many bog plants. Several families of plants including the carnivorous
The recent burning of peat bogs in Indonesia, with their large and deep growths containing more than 50 billion tonnes (55 billion short tons; 49 billion long tons) of carbon, has contributed to increases in world carbon dioxide levels.[68] Peat deposits in Southeast Asia could be destroyed by 2040.[69][70]
It is estimated that in 1997, peat and forest fires in Indonesia released between 0.81 and 2.57 gigatonnes (0.89 and 2.83 billion short tons; 0.80 and 2.53 billion long tons) of carbon; equivalent to 13–40 percent of the amount released by global fossil fuel burning, and greater than the carbon uptake of the world's biosphere. These fires may be responsible for the acceleration in the increase in carbon dioxide levels since 1998.[71][72] More than 100 peat fires in Kalimantan and East Sumatra have continued to burn since 1997; each year, these peat fires ignite new forest fires above the ground.
In North America, peat fires can occur during severe droughts throughout their occurrence, from boreal forests in Canada to swamps and fens in the subtropical southern Florida Everglades.[73] Once a fire has burnt through the area, hollows in the peat are burnt out, and hummocks are desiccated but can contribute to Sphagnum recolonization.[74]
In the summer of 2010, an unusually high
In June 2019, despite some forest fire prevention methods being put in place, peat fires[77] in the Arctic emitted 50 megatonnes (55 million short tons; 49 million long tons) of CO2, which is equal to Sweden's total annual emissions.[78] The peat fires are linked to climate change, as they are much more likely to occur nowadays due to this effect.[79][80]
Erosion: Peat hags
Peat "hags" are a form of erosion that occurs at the sides of gullies that cut into the peat or, sometimes in isolation.[81] Hags may result when flowing water cuts downwards into the peat and when fire or overgrazing exposes the peat surface. Once the peat is exposed in these ways, it is prone to further erosion by wind, water, and livestock. The result is overhanging vegetation and peat. Hags are too steep and unstable for vegetation to establish itself, so they continue to erode unless restorative action is taken.[81]
Protection
This section needs to be updated.(August 2020) |
In June 2002, the United Nations Development Programme launched the Wetlands Ecosystem and Tropical Peat Swamp Forest Rehabilitation Project. This project was targeted to last for 5 years, and brings together the efforts of various non-government organisations.
In November 2002, the International Peatland (formerly Peat) Society (IPS) and the International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG) published guidelines on the "Wise Use of Mires and Peatlands – Backgrounds and Principles including a framework for decision-making". The aim of this publication is to develop mechanisms that can balance the conflicting demands on the global peatland heritage, to ensure its wise use to meet the needs of humankind.
In June 2008, the IPS published the book Peatlands and Climate Change, summarising the currently available knowledge on the topic. In 2010, IPS presented a "Strategy for Responsible Peatland Management", which can be applied worldwide for decision-making.
Restoration
Characteristics and uses by nation
Latvia
Latvia has been the biggest exporter of peat in the world by volume providing more than 19.9% of the world's volume followed only by Canada with 13% in 2022.[85] In 2020, Latvia exported 1.97 million tons of peat, followed by Germany with 1.5 and Canada with 1.42 million tons.[86] Nevertheless, although first in the world by volume, in monetary terms, Latvian comes second in the world behind Canada. As an example, Latvia's income from exports was 237 million US dollars.[86]
Latvia's peat deposits have been estimated to equal 1.7 billion tons.[87] Latvia, as Finland due its climate has several peat bogs, which account for 9.9% of the country's territory.[88]
More than two thirds of the licensed areas for peat extraction are state-owned; 55% belong to the state whilst 23% belong to the municipalities[89]
Bogs in Latvia are considered important habitant due their ecological values and up to 128 thousand hectares or 40% of the areas in the territory are protected by environmental laws.[89] The most famous national parks and reserves are the Ķemeri National Park, Cenas tīrelis and Teiči Nature Reserve.
Finland
This section needs to be updated.(January 2022) |
The climate, geography, and environment of
Also, agricultural and forestry-drained peat bogs actively release more CO2 annually than is released in peat energy production in Finland. The average regrowth rate of a single peat bog, however, is indeed slow, from 1,000 up to 5,000 years. Furthermore, it is a common practice to forest used peat bogs instead of giving them a chance to renew. This leads to lower levels of CO2 storage than the original peat bog.
At 106 g CO2/MJ,[91] the carbon dioxide emissions of peat are higher than those of coal (at 94.6 g CO2/MJ) and natural gas (at 56.1). According to one study, increasing the average amount of wood in the fuel mixture from the current 2.6% to 12.5% would take the emissions down to 93 g CO2/MJ. That said, little effort is being made to achieve this.[92]
The International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG) in 2006 urged the local and national governments of Finland to protect and conserve the remaining pristine peatland ecosystems. This includes the cessation of drainage and peat extraction in intact mire sites and the abandoning of current and planned groundwater extraction that may affect these sites. A proposal for a Finnish peatland management strategy was presented to the government in 2011, after a lengthy consultation phase.[93]
Sweden
About 15% of the land in Sweden is covered by peatlands.[94] Whilst nowadays the main use of such soils is for forestry, peat-rich lands have historically been exploited to produce energy, agricultural land and horticultural substrates.[94] The most common method to extract peat during the 19th and 20th centuries was peat cutting, a process where the land is cleared of forest and subsequentially drained.[94] Peat cores are then extracted under dry weather conditions and stored on stacks to let the residual moisture evaporate.[94] Today, clear cutting for horticultural peat (of which Sweden is an important producer in Europe) is limited to some areas of Sweden and strictly regulated by the Swedish Environmental Code to prevent that significant groundwater storages and carbon sinks areas are altered and compromised by human activities.[94] At the same time, restoration of drained peatlands through rewetting is urged by national and international policies to exploit the peat-rich soil properties in mitigating climate change effects.[95]
Ireland
In the
In January 2021 Bord na Móna announced that it had ceased all peat harvesting and cutting operations and would be moving its business to a climate solutions company.[96]
In 2022 the sale of peat for burning was prohibited, but some people are still allowed to cut and burn it.[97]
Russia
This section needs to be updated.(August 2020) |
Use of peat for energy production was prominent in the Soviet Union, especially in 1965. In 1929, over 40% of the Soviet Union's electric energy came from peat, which dropped to 1% by 1980.
In the 1960s, larger sections of swamps and bogs in Western Russia were drained for agricultural and mining purposes.[98]
Netherlands
2,500 years ago, the area now named the Netherlands was largely covered with peat. Drainage, causing compaction and oxidation and excavation have reduced peatlands (>40 cm (16 in) peat) to about 2,733 km2 (1,055 sq mi)[99] or 10% of the land area, mostly used as meadows. Drainage and excavation have lowered the surface of the peatlands. In the west of the country dikes and mills were built, creating polders so that dwelling and economic activities could continue below sea level, the first polder probably in 1533[100] and the last one in 1968. Harvesting of peat could continue in suitable locations as the lower peat layers below current sea level became exposed. This peat was deposited before the rise of the sea level in the Holocene. As a result, approximately 26% of the area[101] and 21% of the population[102] of the Netherlands are presently below sea level. The deepest point is in the Zuidplaspolder, 6.76 m (22.2 ft) below average sea level.
In 2020, the Netherlands imported 2,156 million kg of peat (5.39 million m3 (400 kg/m3 dry peat) [103]): 44.5% from Germany (2020), 9.5% from Estonia (2018), 9.2% from Latvia (2020), 7.2% from Ireland (2018), 8.0% from Sweden (2019), 6.5% from Lithuania (2020), 5.1% from Belgium (2019) and 1.7% from Denmark (2019)); 1,35 million kg was exported.[104] Most is used in gardening and greenhouse horticulture.
Since the Netherlands did not have many trees to use as firewood or charcoal, one use the Dutch made of the available peat was to fire kilns to make pottery.[105] During World War II, the Dutch Resistance came up with an unusual use for peat. Since peat was so available in the fields, resistance fighters sometimes stacked peat into human-sized piles and used the piles for target practice.[106]
Estonia
After oil shale in Estonia, peat is the second most mined natural resource.[107] The peat production sector has a yearly revenue of around €100 million and it is mostly export-oriented.[citation needed] Peat is extracted from around 14 thousand hectares (35,000 acres).[108]
India
Sikkim
The mountains of the Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau contains pockets of high-altitude wetlands.
United Kingdom
England
England has around 1 million acres of peatland. Peatland in England store 584m tonnes of carbon in total but emit around 11m tonnes of CO2 every year due to degradation and draining. In 2021 only 124 people owned 60% of England's peat land.[111]
The extraction of peat from the Somerset Levels began during the Roman times and has been carried out since the Levels were first drained.[112] On Dartmoor, there were several commercial distillation plants formed and run by the British Patent Naphtha Company in 1844. These produced naphtha on a commercial scale from the high-quality local peat.[113]
Industrial extraction of peat occurred at the Thorne Moor site, outside Doncaster near to the village of Hatfield. Government policy incentivised commercial removal to peat for agricultural use. This caused much destruction of the area during the 1980s. The removal of the peat resulted in later flooding further downstream at Goole due to the loss of water retaining peatlands.[115] Recently regeneration of peatland has occurred as part of the Thorne Moors project, and at Fleet Moss, organised by Yorkshire Wildlife Trust.[116]
Northern Ireland
In
Scotland
Some
Because they are easily compressed under minimal weight, peat deposits pose major difficulties to builders of structures, roads, and railways. When the West Highland railway line was built across Rannoch Moor in western Scotland, its builders had to float the tracks on a multi-thousand-ton mattress of tree roots, brushwood, earth and ash.
Wales
Wales has over 70,000 hectares of peatlands. Most of it is blanket peat bog in the highlands, but there are a few hundred hectares of peatland in lowland areas.[120] Some peatland areas in Wales are in poor condition. In 2020, the Welsh Government established a five-year peatland restoration initiative, which will be implemented by Natural Resources Wales (NRW).[121]
Canada
There are 294 million acres of peatland in Canada, with approximately 43,500 acres in poduction with another 34,500 acres involved in past production, the current and past acrage in production amounts to 0.03 percent of Canada's peatland.[122] Canada is the top exporter of peat by value. In 2021, top exporters of peat (including peat litter), whether or not agglomerated, were Canada ($580,591.39K, 1,643,950,000 kg), European Union ($445,304.42K, 2,362,280,000 kg), Latvia ($275,459.14K, 2,184,860,000 kg), Netherlands ($235,250.84K, 1,312,850,000 kg), Germany ($223,414.66K, 1,721,170,000 kg).[123]
See also
Notes
Constructs such as named references (quick guide), or an abbreviated title. (January 2024) ) |
- ^ See bog for more information on this aspect of peat.
- ^ Supported by the "Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs (DGIS) under the Global Peatland Initiative Archived 2008-11-20 at the Wayback Machine, managed by Wetlands International in co-operation with the IUCN – Netherlands Committee, Alterra, the International Mire Conservation Group and the International Peatland Society."
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- Somerset County Council. September 2009. p. 7. Archived from the original(PDF) on 10 March 2012. Retrieved 30 November 2011.
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External links
- International Peatland Society
- International Mire Conservation Group
- Irish Peatland Conservation Council
- Gardening without peat Royal Horticultural Society
- Peat-free gardens RSPB
- Massive peat burn is speeding climate change From The New Scientist
- Peatlands articles on the BBC
- Meadowview Biological Research Station
- Peat and Peatlands Bibliography