Cyrenaica

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Pentapolis (North Africa)
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Cyrenaica
برقة
Region
Mutasarrıf (1888-1911 AD)
  • Italian colony (1911-1934 AD)
  • Military administration (1943-1949 AD)
  • Emirate (643-? AD; 1949-1951 AD)
  • Province
  • (1951-1963 AD)

    Cyrenaica (

    Koinē Greek: Κυρηναϊκή [ἐπαρχία], romanized: Kurēnaïkḗ [eparkhíā], after the city of Cyrene), is the eastern region of Libya. Cyrenaica includes all of the eastern part of Libya between the 16th and 25th meridians east, including the Kufra District. The coastal region, also known as Pentapolis ("Five Cities") in antiquity, was part of the Roman province of Crete and Cyrenaica, later divided into Libya Pentapolis and Libya Sicca. During the Islamic period, the area came to be known as Barqa, after the city of Barca
    .

    Cyrenaica became

    Geography

    Satellite image of Libya with Cyrenaica on the right side, showing the green Mediterranean coast in the north and the large desert in the centre and south

    Geologically, Cyrenaica rests on a mass of Miocene limestone that tilts up steeply from the Mediterranean Sea and falls inland with a gradual descent to sea level again.

    This mass is divided into two blocks. The

    Jebel Akhdar extends parallel to the coast from the Gulf of Sidra to the Gulf of Bomba and reaches an elevation of 882 meters. There is no continuous coastal plain, the longest strip running from the recess of Gulf of Sidra past Benghazi to Tolmeita. Thereafter, except for deltaic patches at Susa and Derna, the shore is all precipitous. A steep escarpment separates the coastal plain from a relatively level plateau, known as the Marj Plain, which lies at about 300 meters elevation. Above the Marj Plain lies a dissected plateau at about 700 meters elevation, which contains the highest peaks in the range.[4]

    The Jebel Akhdar and its adjacent coast are part of the

    Olea europaea, Quercus coccifera, Ceratonia siliqua, and Pinus halepensis.[4]

    Areas of

    red soil are found on the Marj Plain, which has borne abundant crops of wheat and barley from ancient times to the present day. Plenty of springs issue on the highlands. Wild olive trees are abundant, and large areas of oak savanna provide pasture to the flocks and herds of the local Bedouins.[7] Historically large areas of range were covered in forest. The forested area of the Jebel Akhdar has been shrinking in recent decades. A 1996 report to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization estimated that the forested area was reduced to 320,000 hectares from 500,000 hectares, mostly cleared to grow crops.[6] The Green Mountain Conservation and Development Authority estimates that the forested area decreased from 500,000 hectares in 1976 to 180,000 hectares in 2007.[8]

    The southward slopes of the Jebel Akhdar are occupied by the Mediterranean dry woodlands and steppe, a transitional ecoregion lying between the Mediterranean climate regions of North Africa and the hyper-arid Sahara.[9]

    The lower Jebel el-Akabah lies to the south and east of the Jebel Akhdar. The two highlands are separated by a depression. This eastern region, known in ancient times as Marmarica, is much drier than the Jebel Akhdar and here the Sahara extends to the coast. Historically, salt-collecting and sponge fishing were more important than agriculture. Bomba and Tobruk have good harbors.[7]

    South of the coastal highlands of Cyrenaica is a large east–west running depression, extending eastward from the Gulf of Sidra into Egypt. This region of the Sahara is known as the Libyan Desert, and includes the Great Sand Sea and the Calanshio Sand Sea. The Libyan Desert is home to a few oases, including Awjila and Jaghbub.

    History

    Berber people

    The Berbers were the earliest recorded inhabitants of Cyrenaica.[10]

    Ancient Egyptian Era

    Egyptian records mention that during the New Kingdom of Egypt (thirteenth century BC), the Libu and Meshwesh tribes of Cyrenaica made frequent incursions into Egypt.

    Greek colonization

    Cyrenaica was colonized by the Greeks beginning in the seventh century BC, when it was known as Kyrenaïka. The first and most important colony was that of Cyrene, established in about 631 BC by colonists from the Greek island of Thera, which they had abandoned because of a severe famine.[11] Their commander, Aristoteles, took the Libyan name Battos.[12] His descendants, known as the Battiadae, persisted despite severe conflict with Greeks in neighboring cities.

    The eastern portion of the province, with no major population centers, was called

    Euesperides or Berenice (near modern Benghazi), Balagrae (Bayda) and Barce (Marj) – of which the chief was the eponymous Cyrene.[11] The term "Pentapolis" continued to be used as a synonym for Cyrenaica. In the south, the Pentapolis faded into the Saharan tribal areas, including the pharaonic oracle of Ammonium
    .

    The region produced barley, wheat, olive oil, wine, figs, apples, wool, sheep, cattle and silphium, a herb that grew only in Cyrenaica and was regarded as a medicinal cure and aphrodisiac.[13]

    Cyrene became one of the greatest intellectual and artistic centers of the Greek world, famous for its medical school, learned academies and architecture, which included some of the finest examples of the Hellenistic style. The Cyrenaics, a school of thinkers who expounded a doctrine of moral cheerfulness that defined happiness as the sum of human pleasures, were founded by Aristippus of Cyrene.[14] Other notable natives of Cyrene were the poet Callimachus and the mathematicians Theodorus and Eratosthenes.[13]

    Persian rule

    In 525 BC, after conquering Egypt, the Achaemenid (Persian) army of Cambyses II seized the Pentapolis, and established a satrapy (Achaemenid Persian province) over parts of the region for about the next two centuries.

    Hellenistic era

    The Persians were followed by

    Ptolemy VIII and given to his son Ptolemy Apion, who, dying without heirs in 96 BC, bequeathed it to the Roman Republic
    .

    Roman province

    Crete and Cyrenaica, 2nd century Roman Empire
    Map of      Cyrenaica and      Marmarica in the Roman era (Samuel Butler, 1907)

    The Latin name Cyrenaica (or Kyrenika) dates to the first century BC. Although some confusion exists as to the exact territory Rome inherited, by 78 BC it was organized as one administrative province together with

    praefectus augustalis
    ) in 30 BC.

    Roman ruins of Ptolemais, Cyrenaica

    Diocese of Egypt, within the praetorian prefecture of Oriens. Its western neighbor Tripolitania, the largest split-off from Africa proconsularis, became part of the Diocese of Africa, subordinate to the prefecture of Italia et Africa. Following the Crete earthquake of 365, the capital was moved to Ptolemais. After the Empire's division, Cyrenaica became part of the East Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire), bordering Tripolitania. It was briefly part of the Vandal Kingdom to the west, until its reconquest by Belisarius
    in 533.

    The

    Balacris and Cyrene.[15]

    Christianization

    According to the Synoptic Gospels, Simon of Cyrene carried the cross of Jesus Christ to the crucifixion.

    According to one tradition,

    Colosse (Col 4:10) and Rome (Phil 24; 2 Tim 4:11); from Pentapolis he made his way to Alexandria.[16]

    The patriarch of the Coptic Church to this day includes the Pentapolis in his title as an area within his jurisdiction.[17]

    The Eparchy of the Western Pentapolis was part of the

    The Holy Synod of the Coptic Orthodox Church after the Pope was the Metropolitan of Western Pentapolis, although, since its demise as a major Archiepiscopal Metropolis in the days of Pope John VI of Alexandria
    , it was held as a Titular See attached to another Diocese.

    After being repeatedly destroyed and restored during the Roman period Pentapolis became a mere borough, but was nevertheless the site of a diocese. Its bishop,

    Zopyrus, was present at the First Council of Nicaea in 325. The subscriptions at Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon
    (451) give the names of two other bishops, Zenobius and Theodorus.

    Although it retained the title "Pentapolis", the ecclesiastic province actually included all of the Cyrenaica, not just the five cities. Pentapolis is still included in the title of Popes of the

    Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria
    .

    Arab and Ottoman rule

    Cyrenaica was conquered by Muslim Arabs under command of

    Fatimid caliphs. The region became a base for piracy, many of whom acted as privateers for the Fatimids.[20] Around 1051/52, Jabbara, emir of Barqa, transferred his allegiance from the Fatimids to the Zirids
    .

    In the middle of the 11th century, several Arab tribes, including the Bedouin

    In 1879, Cyrenaica became a wilayah of the Ottoman Empire.[25] In 1888, it became a mutasarrıfiyya under a mutasarrif and was further divided into five qadaas. The wali of Ottoman Tripolitania, however, looked after the military and judicial affairs. The bureaucratic setup was similar to the one in Tripoli. The mutasarrifate existed until the Italian invasion.[26]

    Italian colonial rule

    Idris as-Senussi (left), and behind him (from left) Hussein Maziq, Muhammad Sakizli and Mustafa Ben Halim
    , formed the government of Cyrenaica in late 1940s
    Littorio Palace in Benghazi was the seat of the Cyrenaican assembly

    The Italians occupied Cyrenaica during the

    Senussi, who was granted the princely rank of Emir until 1929. In that year, Italy withdrew recognition of him and the Senussi. On 1 January 1934, Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, and Fezzan were united as the Italian colony of Libya
    .

    The Italian fascists constructed the Marble Arch as a form of an imperial triumphal arch at the border between Cyrenaica and Tripolitani near the coast.

    There was heavy fighting in Cyrenaica during

    Nazi German Afrika Korps. In late 1942, Allied forces liberated Cyrenaica from Axis occupation and the United Kingdom administered most of Libya through 1951, when the Kingdom of Libya was established and granted independence.[27]

    Emirate of Cyrenaica

    Flag of the short-lived emirate of Cyrenaica, 1949–1951.

    In 1949, Idris al-Senussi, with British backing, proclaimed the independent Emirate of Cyrenaica. This emirate became part of the Kingdom of Libya when it was established, and an independent kingdom on 24 December 1951, with Idris al-Senussi becoming King Idris.

    Gaddafi's Arab republic

    Since 1 September 1969, when the

    Senussi dynasty was overthrown by Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, Cyrenaica occasionally experienced nationalist activity against Gaddafi's military dictatorship[citation needed], including a military rebellion at Tobruk in 1980.[28]

    In 2007, the Green Mountain Conservation and Development Authority, headed by

    eco-tourism destination. The announced pilot projects included plans for three hotels, including the Cyrene Grand Hotel near the ruins of Cyrene.[29]

    For much of the

    Libyan civil war, Cyrenaica was largely under the control of the National Transitional Council while Tripolitania and Fezzan remained under Gaddafi's government control. Some proposed a "two-state solution" to the conflict, with Cyrenaica becoming an independent state,[30]
    but this concept was strongly rejected by both sides, and the three regions were united again in October 2011, as rebel forces took Tripolitania and Fezzan and the government collapsed.

    Episcopal sees

    Ancient episcopal sees of the Roman province of Libya Superior or Libya Pentapolitana listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees:[31]

    For the ancient sees of Libya Inferior, see Marmarica.
    For those of Creta, see Byzantine Crete.

    See also

    References

    1. ^ "Endgame in Tripoli". The Economist. 24 February 2011. Retrieved 1 March 2011.
    2. ^ "East Libya declares self-government". aljazeera.com.
    3. ^ "Eastern Libyan leaders declare semi-autonomy". CNN. 7 March 2012.
    4. ^ a b c d Gimingham, C. H. and K. Walton (1954). "Environment and the Structure of Scrub Communities on the Limestone Plateaux of Northern Cyrenaica." Journal of Ecology, Vol. 42, No. 2, Jul., 1954
    5. ^ "Mediterranean woodlands and forests". WWF Scientific Report [1]. Accessed 27 March 2011
    6. ^ a b c El-Darier, S. M. and F.M. El-Mogaspi (2009). "Ethnobotany and Relative Importance of Some Endemic Plant Species at El-Jabal El-Akhdar Region (Libya)". World Journal of Agricultural Sciences 5 (3): 353-360, 2009, pp 353-360.
    7. ^ a b "Cyrenaica", from Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, 1911
    8. ^ The Report: Libya 2008, p. 134. Oxford Business Group.
    9. ^ "North Saharan steppe and woodlands" WWF Scientific Report [2]. Accessed 27 March 2011.
    10. .
    11. ^
    12. ^ Details of the founding are contained in Book IV of Histories, by Herodotus of Halicarnassus
    13. ^ a b Ring, Trudy, Robert M. Salkin and Sharon La Boda (1996). "Cyrene (Gebel Akhdar, Libya)" in International Dictionary of Historic Places, Volume 4: Middle East and Africa. Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, Chicago and London.
    14. ^ "Cyrenaica and the Greeks" from The Library of Congress Country Studies: Libya. 2001. [3]. Accessed 27 March 2011.
    15. ^ Agricole Joseph F.X.P.E.S.P.A. Fortia d'Urban (marq. de), Bénigne Emmanuel C. Miller, Recueil des itinéraires anciens, comprenant l'itinéraire d'Antonin, la table de Peutinger, et un choix des périples grecs, 1845, p. 286
    16. ^ "St. Mark the Apostle, the Founder of the Coptic Church", Coptic Orthodox Diocese of the Southern United States, accessed 19 May 2009
    17. ^ "Atiya, Aziz S. "The Copts and Christian Civilization Coptic.net
    18. ISSN 1873-9830
      .
    19. .
    20. .
    21. .
    22. .
    23. ^ .
    24. .
    25. .
    26. .
    27. ^ Associated Press, 'Libyan Opposition to Khadafy Growing but Fragmented Says Expert,' 17 April 1986.
    28. ^ Rose, Steve. "Gadafy's green vision". The Guardian 12 September 2007. Accessed 2 April 2011.[4]
    29. ^ "Two-state solution for Libya?". BBC Today programme. 25 March 2011. Retrieved 24 December 2011.
    30. ), "Sedi titolari", pp. 819-1013
    • Westermann Grosser Atlas zur Weltgeschichte (in German).

    Further reading

    Sources and external links