Polish People's Republic
You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in Polish. (September 2021) Click [show] for important translation instructions.
|
This article needs additional citations for verification. (November 2023) |
1947–1989 | |||||||||
Anthem: Mazurek Dąbrowskiego " State Atheism (de jure) | |||||||||
Demonym(s) | Polish, Pole | ||||||||
Government | 1947–1989: Unitary Marxist–Leninist one-party socialist republic
| ||||||||
First Secretary and Leader | |||||||||
• 1947–1956 (first) | Bolesław Bierut | ||||||||
• 1989 (last) | Mieczysław Rakowski | ||||||||
Head of Council | |||||||||
• 1947–1952 (first) | Bolesław Bierut | ||||||||
• 1985–1989 (last) | Wojciech Jaruzelski | ||||||||
Prime Minister | |||||||||
• 1944–1947 (first) | E. Osóbka-Morawski | ||||||||
• 1989 (last) | Tadeusz Mazowiecki | ||||||||
Legislature | Free elections | 4 June 1989 | |||||||
9 December 1989 | |||||||||
Złoty (PLZ) | |||||||||
Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) | ||||||||
• Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) | ||||||||
Driving side | right | ||||||||
Calling code | +48 | ||||||||
ISO 3166 code | PL | ||||||||
|
The Polish People's Republic (
A
The
Despite the numerous economic hardships, some achievements were established during this period, including improved living conditions, rapid industrialization, and urbanization. Access to universal health care, abortion and free education were made available, and the population almost doubled between 1947 and 1989. Poland also maintained a large standing army, known as the Polish People's Army. In addition, units of the Soviet Armed Forces were also stationed in Poland as in all other Warsaw Pact countries.[5]
The Polish People's Republic was dissolved following the Revolutions of 1989 and the 1990 Polish presidential election, but the post-communist Third Polish Republic retained the 1952 constitution, with amendments, until the introduction of the current constitution on 17 October 1997, abolishing the socialist structure entirely and replacing with a parliamentary system that has remained in place to the present-day.
History
1945–1956
In the summer of 1944 the Polish Committee of National Liberation was established by Soviet-backed Polish communists to control territory retaken from Nazi Germany. On 1 January 1945 the committee was replaced by the Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland, all the key posts of which were held by members of the communist Polish Workers' Party.
At the
In compensation, Poland was granted German-populated territories in Pomerania, Silesia, and Brandenburg east of the Oder–Neisse line, including the southern half of East Prussia. As a result of these actions, Poland lost 77,035 km2 (29,743 sq mi) of land compared to its pre-WWII territory. These were confirmed, pending a final peace conference with Germany,[6] at the Tripartite Conference of Berlin, otherwise known as the Potsdam Conference in August 1945 after the end of the war in Europe. The Potsdam Agreement also sanctioned the transfer of German population out of the acquired territories. Stalin was determined that Poland's new communist government would become his tool towards making Poland a satellite state like other countries in Central and Eastern Europe. He had severed relations with the Polish government-in-exile in London in 1943, but to appease Roosevelt and Churchill he agreed at Yalta that a coalition government would be formed. The Provisional Government of National Unity was established in June 1946 with the communists holding a majority of key posts, and with Soviet support they soon gained almost total control of the country.
In June 1946, the "
Between the referendum and the
The official results of the election showed the Democratic Bloc with 80.1 percent of the vote. The Democratic Bloc was awarded 394 seats to only 28 for the PSL. Mikołajczyk immediately resigned to protest this so-called 'implausible result' and fled to the United Kingdom in April rather than face arrest. Later, some historians [citation needed]announced that the official results were only obtained through massive fraud. Government officials didn't even count the real votes in many areas and simply filled in the relevant documents in accordance with instructions from the communists. In other areas, the ballot boxes were either destroyed or replaced with boxes containing prefilled ballots.
The 1947 election marked the beginning of undisguised communist rule in Poland, though it was not officially transformed into the Polish People's Republic until the adoption of the 1952 Constitution. However, Gomułka never supported Stalin's control over the Polish communists and was soon replaced as party leader by the more pliable Bierut. In 1948, the communists consolidated their power, merging with Cyrankiewicz' faction of the PPS to form the Polish United Workers' Party (known in Poland as 'the Party'), which would monopolise political power in Poland until 1989. In 1949, Polish-born Soviet Marshal Konstantin Rokossovsky became the Minister of National Defence, with the additional title Marshal of Poland, and in 1952 he became Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers (deputy premier).
Over the coming years, private industry was
Through a careful balance of agreement, compromise and resistance — and having signed an agreement of coexistence with the communist government —
Bierut died in March 1956, and was replaced with Edward Ochab, who held the position for seven months. In June, workers in the industrial city of Poznań went on strike, in what became known as 1956 Poznań protests. Voices began to be raised in the Party and among the intellectuals calling for wider reforms of the Stalinist system. Eventually, power shifted towards Gomułka, who replaced Ochab as party leader. Hardline Stalinists were removed from power and many Soviet officers serving in the Polish Army were dismissed. This marked the end of the Stalinist era.
1970s and 1980s
In 1970, Gomułka's government had decided to adopt massive increases in the prices of basic goods, including food. The resulting widespread
On 16 October 1978, the
A new wave of labour strikes undermined Gierek's government, and in September Gierek, who was in poor health, was finally removed from office and replaced as Party leader by Stanisław Kania. However, Kania was unable to find an answer for the fast-eroding support of communism in Poland. Labour turmoil led to the formation of the independent trade union Solidarity (Solidarność) in September 1980, originally led by Lech Wałęsa. In fact, Solidarity became a broad anti-communist social movement ranging from people associated with the Catholic Church, to members of the anti-Stalinist left. By the end of 1981, Solidarity had nine million members—a quarter of Poland's population and three times as many as the PUWP had. Kania resigned under Soviet pressure in October and was succeeded by Wojciech Jaruzelski, who had been Defence minister since 1968 and Premier since February.
On 13 December 1981, Jaruzelski proclaimed martial law, suspended Solidarity, and temporarily imprisoned most of its leaders. This sudden crackdown on Solidarity was reportedly out of fear of Soviet intervention (see Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981). The government then disallowed Solidarity on 8 October 1982. Martial law was formally lifted in July 1983, though many heightened controls on civil liberties and political life, as well as food rationing, remained in place through the mid-to-late-1980s. Jaruzelski stepped down as prime minister in 1985 and became president (chairman of the Council of State).
This did not prevent Solidarity from gaining more support and power. Eventually it eroded the dominance of the PUWP, which in 1981 lost approximately 85,000 of its 3 million members. Throughout the mid-1980s, Solidarity persisted solely as an underground organization, but by the late 1980s was sufficiently strong to frustrate Jaruzelski's attempts at reform, and nationwide strikes in 1988 were one of the factors that forced the government to open a dialogue with Solidarity.
From 6 February to 15 April 1989, talks of 13
Solidarity persuaded the communists' longtime allied parties, the United People's Party and Democratic Party, to switch their support to Solidarity. This all but forced Jaruzelski, who had been named president in July, to appoint a Solidarity member as prime minister. Finally, he appointed a Solidarity-led coalition government with Tadeusz Mazowiecki as the country's first non-communist prime minister since 1948.
On 10 December 1989, the statue of Vladimir Lenin was removed in Warsaw by the Polish authorities.[11]
The Parliament amended the Constitution on 29 December 1989 to formally rescind the PUWP's constitutionally-guaranteed power and restore democracy and civil liberties. This began the
The PZPR was disbanded on 30 January 1990, and Wałęsa was elected as president eleven months later. The
Government and politics
The government and politics of the Polish People's Republic were dominated by the
From 1952, the highest law was the
The Polish People's Republic maintained a
Foreign relations
During its existence, the Polish People's Republic maintained relations not only with the
Under pressure from the Soviet Union, Poland participated in the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968.
The Polish People's Republic's
The Polish People's Republic participated as a member of the United Nations (as a founding member), the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, the Warsaw Pact, Comecon, the International Energy Agency, the Council of Europe, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the International Atomic Energy Agency and Interkosmos.
Economy
Early years
Poland suffered tremendous economic losses during World War II. In 1939, Poland had 35.1 million inhabitants, but the census of 14 February 1946 showed only 23.9 million inhabitants. The difference was partially the result of the border revision. Losses in national resources and infrastructure amounted to approximately 38%. The implementation of the immense tasks involved with the reconstruction of the country was intertwined with the struggle of the new government for the stabilisation of power, made even more difficult by the fact that a considerable part of society was mistrustful of the communist government. The occupation of Poland by the Red Army and the support the Soviet Union had shown for the Polish communists was decisive in the communists gaining the upper hand in the new Polish government.
As control of the Polish territories passed from occupying forces of
The Allied punishment of Germany for the war of destruction was intended to include large-scale reparations to Poland. However, those were truncated into insignificance by the break-up of Germany into East and West and the onset of the Cold War. Poland was then relegated to receive her share from the Soviet-controlled East Germany. However, even this was attenuated, as the Soviets pressured the Polish Government to cease receiving the reparations far ahead of schedule as a sign of 'friendship' between the two new communist neighbors and, therefore, now friends.[18][19] Thus, without the reparations and without the massive Marshall Plan implemented in the West at that time, Poland's postwar recovery was much harder than it could have been.
Later years
During the
In 1981, Poland notified
The party was forced to raise prices, which led to further large-scale social unrest and formation of the
In response to this situation, the government, which controlled all official foreign trade, continued to maintain a highly artificial
As Western currency came into the country from emigrant families and foreign workers, the government in turn attempted to gather it up by various means, most visibly by establishing a chain of state-run
In this desperate situation, all development and growth in the Polish economy slowed to a crawl. Most visibly, work on most of the major investment projects that had begun in the 1970s was stopped. As a result, most Polish cities acquired at least one infamous example of a large unfinished building languishing in a state of limbo. While some of these were eventually finished decades later, most were never finished at all, wasting the considerable resources devoted to their construction such as with the
After several years of the situation continuing to worsen, during which time the socialist government unsuccessfully tried various expedients to improve the performance of the economy—at one point resorting to placing military commissars to direct work in the factories — it grudgingly accepted pressures to liberalize the economy. The government introduced a series of small-scale reforms, such as allowing more small-scale private enterprises to function. However, the government also realized that it lacked the legitimacy to carry out any large-scale reforms, which would inevitably cause large-scale social dislocation and economic difficulties for most of the population, accustomed to the extensive social safety net that the socialist system had provided. For example, when the government proposed to close the Gdańsk Shipyard, a decision in some ways justifiable from an economic point of view but also largely political, there was a wave of public outrage and the government was forced to back down.
The only way to carry out such changes without social upheaval would be to acquire at least some support from the opposition side. The government accepted the idea that some kind of a deal with the opposition would be necessary, and repeatedly attempted to find common ground throughout the 1980s. However, at this point the communists generally still believed that they should retain the reins of power for the near future, and only allowed the opposition limited, advisory participation in the running of the country. They believed that this would be essential to pacifying the Soviet Union, which they felt was not yet ready to accept a non-Communist Poland.
Culture
Television and media
The origins of Polish television date back to the late 1930s,[27][28] however, the beginning of World War II interrupted further progress at establishing a regularly televised program. The first prime state television corporation, Telewizja Polska, was founded after the war in 1952 and was hailed as a great success by the communist authorities.[29] The foundation date corresponds to the time of the very first regularly televised broadcast which occurred at 07:00 p.m CET on 25 October 1952.[29] Initially, the auditions were broadcast to a limited number of viewers and at set dates, often a month apart. On 23 January 1953 regular shows began to appear on the first and only channel, TVP1.[30] The second channel, TVP2, was launched in 1970 and coloured television was introduced in 1971. Most reliable sources of information in the 1950s were newspapers, most notably Trybuna Ludu (People's Tribune).
The chief
Under martial law in Poland, from December 1981 Dziennik was presented by officers of the Polish Armed Forces or newsreaders in military uniforms and broadcast 24-hours a day.[35][36] The running time has also been extended to 60 minutes. The program returned to its original form in 1983.[37] The audience viewed this move as an attempt to militarize the country under a military junta. As a result, several newsreaders had difficulty in finding employment after the fall of communism in 1989.[36]
Despite the political agenda of Telewizja Polska, the authorities did emphasize the need to provide entertainment for younger viewers without exposing the children to inappropriate content. Initially created in the 1950s, an
Countless shows were made relating to
Being produced in a then-socialist country, the shows did contain a socialist agenda, but with a more informal and comical tone; they concentrated on everyday life which was appealing to ordinary people.
Cinema
In November 1945 the newly formed communist government founded the film production and distribution corporation
The change in political climate in the 1950s gave rise to the
The first nominated Polish film at the Academy Awards was Knife in the Water by Polanski in 1963.[48] Between 1974 and 1981, Polish films were nominated five times and three consecutively from 1974 to 1976.
- Movies
- A Generation
- Ashes and Diamonds
- Nights and Days
- The Deluge
- Knights of the Teutonic Order
- The Quack
- The Doll
- Countess Cosel – Anna Constantia von Brockdorff
- Salt of the Black Earth
- Westerplatte – Battle of Westerplatte
- Death of a President – Assassination of Gabriel Narutowicz
- The Coup d'Etat
- The Cruise
- Sexmission
- Teddy Bear
- How I Unleashed World War II
Architecture
The architecture in Poland under the Polish People's Republic had three major phases – short-lived
Under
Following the
Some groundbreaking architectural achievements were made during the People's Republic, most notably the reconstruction of Warsaw with its historical
Education
Communist authorities placed an emphasis on education since they considered it vital to create a new intelligentsia or an educated class that would accept and favour socialist ideas over capitalism to maintain the communists in power for a long period.
Prior to the Second World War, education in the capitalist
After the
Primary as well as secondary, tertiary, vocational and higher education was made free. Attendance gradually grew, which put an end to illiteracy in rural areas. The communist government also introduced new beneficial content into the system; sports and physical education were enforced and students were encouraged to learn foreign languages, especially German, Russian or French and from the 1980s also English. On July 15, 1961, two-year vocational career training was made obligatory to boost the number of skilled labourers and the minimum age of graduation rose to 15. Additionally, special schools were established for deaf, mute and blind children. Such institutions for the impaired were almost nonexistent in the Second Polish Republic. During the 1960s, thousands of modern schools were founded.
The number of universities nearly doubled between 1938 and 1963. Medical, agricultural, economical, engineering and sport faculties became separate colleges, under a universal communist model used in other countries of the
Religion
The experiences in and after World War II, wherein the large ethnic Polish population was decimated, its Jewish minority was annihilated by the Germans, the large German minority was forcibly expelled from the country at the end of the war, along with the loss of the eastern territories which had a significant population of Eastern Orthodox Belarusians and Ukrainians, led to Poland becoming more homogeneously Catholic than it had previously been.[62]
The Polish anti-religious campaign was initiated by the
The Catholic Church in Poland provided strong resistance to Communist rule and Poland itself had a long history of dissent to foreign rule.[66] The Polish nation rallied to the Church, as had occurred in neighbouring Lithuania, which made it more difficult for the government to impose its antireligious policies as it had in the USSR, where the populace did not hold mass solidarity with the Russian Orthodox Church. It became the strongest anti-communist body during the epoch of Communism in Poland, and provided a more successful resistance than had religious bodies in most other Communist states.[65]
The Catholic Church unequivocally condemned communist ideology.[67] This led to the antireligious activity in Poland being compelled to take a more cautious and conciliatory line than in other Communist countries, largely failing in their attempt to control or suppress the Polish Church.[66]
The state attempted to take control of minority churches, including the Polish Protestant and Polish Orthodox Church in order to use it as a weapon against the anti-communist efforts of the Roman Catholic Church in Poland, and it attempted to control the person who was named as Metropolitan for the Polish Orthodox Church; Metropolitan Dionizy (the post-war head of the POC) was arrested and retired from service after his release.[68]
Following with the forcible conversion of
Demographics
Before
The population of
According to the national census, which took place on 14 February 1946, population of Poland was 23.9 million, out of which 32% lived in cities and towns, and 68% lived in the countryside. The 1950 census (3 December 1950) showed the population rise to 25 million, and the 1960 census (6 December 1960) placed the population of Poland at 29.7 million.[72] In 1950, Warsaw was again the biggest city, with the population of 804,000 inhabitants. Second was Łódź (pop. 620,000), then Kraków (pop. 344,000), Poznań (pop. 321,000), and Wrocław (pop. 309,000).
Females were in the majority in the country. In 1931, there were 105.6 women for 100 men. In 1946, the difference grew to 118.5/100, but in subsequent years, number of males grew, and in 1960, the ratio was 106.7/100.
Most
As a result of the migrations and the Soviet Unions radically altered borders under the rule of Joseph Stalin, the population of Poland became one of the most ethnically homogeneous in the world.[74] Virtually all people in Poland claim Polish nationality, with Polish as their native tongue.[75]
Military
World War II
The
It was not the only Polish formation that fought along the Allied side, nor the first one in the East – although the first Polish force formed in the USSR, the
After the war
Following the Second World War, the Polish Army was reorganized into six (later seven) main military districts: the Warsaw Military District with its headquarters in Warsaw, the Lublin Military District, Kraków Military District, Łódź Military District, Poznań Military District, the Pomeranian Military District with its headquarters in Toruń and the Silesian Military District in Katowice.[79]
Throughout the late 1940s and early 50s the Polish Army was under the command of Polish-born Marshal of the Soviet Union Konstantin Rokossovsky, who was intentionally given the title "Marshal of Poland" and was also Minister of National Defense.[80] It was heavily tied into the Soviet military structures and was intended to increase Soviet influence as well as control over the Polish units in case of war. This process, however, was stopped in the aftermath of the Polish October in 1956.[81] Rokossovsky, viewed as a Soviet puppet, was excluded from the Polish United Workers' Party and driven out back to the Soviet Union where he remained a hero until death.
Geography
Geographically, the Polish People's Republic bordered the
Administration
The Polish People's Republic was divided into several
In 1950, new voivodeships were created:
In 1973, Poland's voivodeships were changed again. This reorganization of the administrative division of Poland was mainly a result of local government reform acts of 1973 to 1975. In place of three-level administrative division (voivodeship, county, commune), a new two-level administrative division was introduced (49 small voidships and communes). The three smallest voivodeships: Warsaw, Kraków and Łódź had a special status of municipal voivodeship; the city mayor (prezydent miasta) was also province governor.
References
- ^ "What Was the Eastern Bloc?". Retrieved 9 July 2018.
- ^ Internetowy System Aktów Prawnych (2013). "Small Constitution of 1947" [Mała Konstytucja z 1947]. Original text at the Sejm website. Kancelaria Sejmu RP. Archived from the original (PDF direct download) on 3 June 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
- ^ "Urząd Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego - Virtual Shtetl". sztetl.org.pl. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
- ^ Rummel, R. J. (1997). Statistics of democide: genocide and mass murder since 1900. Charlottesville, Virginia: Transaction Publishers.
- ^ a b Rao, B. V. (2006), History of Modern Europe Ad 1789-2002: A.D. 1789-2002, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
- ISBN 9780880331746.
- ISBN 83-7059-459-X
- ^ Britannica (10 April 2013), Stefan Wyszyński, (1901–1981). Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ Saxon, Wolfgang (29 May 1981). "Wyszynski Fortified Church Under Communist Rule". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 December 2017.
- ^ Curtis, Glenn E., ed. (1992). "The Society: The Polish Catholic Church and the State". Poland: A Country Study. Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress. Retrieved 10 December 2017 – via Country Studies US.
- New York Times. Reuters. 11 December 1989.
- S2CID 144432959.
- ^ "Urząd Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego – Virtual Shtetl". sztetl.org.pl. Archived from the original on 6 January 2020. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
- ISBN 9783825840105.
- ISBN 9781782251309. Retrieved 9 July 2018 – via Google Books.
- ^ Wojciech Roszkowski, Reforma Rolna Encyklopedia.PWN.pl (Internet Archive)
- ^ Zbigniew Landau, Nacjonalizacja w Polsce Encyklopedia.PWN.pl (Internet Archive)
- ISBN 978-1-84545-013-7.
- ISBN 978-0-415-36406-5. [page needed]
- ^ "Próby reform realnego socjalizmu (gospodarka PRL – 1956–1989)". www.ipsb.nina.gov.pl (in Polish). Retrieved 19 December 2019.
- ^ "Agreements concluded with Paris Club | Club de Paris". www.clubdeparis.org. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
- ^ a b c d Karolina Szamańska (2008). "Sklepy w czasach PRL" (PDF). Portal Naukowy Wiedza i Edukacja. pp. 13, 22–23 / 25. Archived from the original (PDF file, direct download) on 19 October 2014. Retrieved 15 October 2014.
- ISBN 1-891620-82-7.
- ISBN 0-521-83895-9.
- ^ "saksy – Wikisłownik, wolny słownik wielojęzyczny". pl.wiktionary.org. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
- ^ "Building Export from Socialist Poland: On the Traces of a Photograph – Stadtaspekte". 2 April 2016. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
- ^ "80 lat temu wyemitowano pierwszy w Polsce oficjalny program telewizyjny". www.tvp.info. 26 August 2019.
- ^ "Zapomniany jubileusz TVP". Newsweek.pl. 23 August 2009.
- ^ a b "Symboliczny początek Telewizji Polskiej. Te 30 minut powojenne pokolenie wspomina z łezką w oku". naTemat.pl.
- ^ S.A, Wirtualna Polska Media (23 October 2007). "55. rocznica pierwszej audycji Telewizji Polskiej". wiadomosci.wp.pl.
- ^ "Dziennik Telewizyjny". www.irekw.internetdsl.pl. Archived from the original on 5 December 2014. Retrieved 7 March 2020.
- ^ "Aktuelle Kamera – tvpforum.pl". tvpforum.pl.
- ^ "30 lat temu wyemitowano ostatnie wydanie Dziennika Telewizyjnego". wiadomosci.dziennik.pl. 17 November 2019.
- ^ "W mrokach propagandy PRL". histmag.org.
- ^ S.A, Wirtualna Polska Media (11 December 2013). "Dziennikarze w mundurach – Propaganda w stanie wojennym". wiadomosci.wp.pl.
- ^ a b "Gwiazda stanu wojennego pracował jako nocny stróż". www.tvp.info. 13 December 2008.
- ^ "Wyborcza.pl". wyborcza.pl.
- ^ "Kultowe dobranocki wychowały całe pokolenia. Pamiętasz swoją ulubioną?". Portal I.pl. 21 February 2020.
- ^ "Kultowe polskie dobranocki". Culture.pl.
- ^ "Kultowe dobranocki z czasów PRL". wiadomosci.dziennik.pl. 28 June 2009.
- ^ a b c "Najlepsze seriale PRL. "Czterej pancerni", "Czterdziestolatek" i inne kultowe seriale sprzed lat! – Telemagazyn.pl". www.telemagazyn.pl. 25 March 2019.
- ^ "Niezręczna prawda o "Czterech Pancernych". W rzeczywistości byli… Rosjanami". CiekawostkiHistoryczne.pl. 16 October 2014.
- ^ a b "Filmy prl, socjalizm – FDB". fdb.pl.
- ISBN 9788360902455– via Google Books.
- ISBN 978-1-57181-276-6.
- ^ "Wyborcza.pl". lodz.wyborcza.pl.
- ^ a b Piotr Łopuszański. "Poeta polskiego kina – Wojciech Has" [Poet of Polish cinema – Wojciech Has]. Podkowiański Magazyn Kulturalny (in Polish). No. 63.
- ^ "Knife in the Water – Roman Polański". Culture.pl.
- ^ "70 lat temu wprowadzono w Polsce socrealizm jako programowy kierunek sztuki". dzieje.pl.
- ^ "Socrealizm nieoczywisty". Culture.pl.
- ^ "architektura socrealistyczna – cechy stylu". architektura socrealistyczna – cechy stylu – architektura socrealistyczna – cechy stylu – Architektura – Wiedza – HISTORIA: POSZUKAJ.
- ^ a b "Pałac Kultury i Nauki w Warszawie". www.pkin.pl. Archived from the original on 26 January 2017. Retrieved 7 March 2020.
- ^ "Pałac Kultury i Nauki". otwartezabytki.pl. Archived from the original on 28 July 2021. Retrieved 7 March 2020.
- ^ Kieszek-Wasilewska, Iza (18 December 2013). "Prawdy i legendy o Pałacu Kultury i Nauki". Archived from the original on 14 August 2019. Retrieved 7 March 2020.
- ^ a b c "Skąd się wzięły bloki". Culture.pl.
- ^ "Ponad połowa Polaków mieszka w domach". Onet Biznes. 19 July 2017. Archived from the original on 10 February 2020. Retrieved 7 March 2020.
- ^ "Dworzec Centralny wpisany do rejestru zabytków". www.mwkz.pl.
- ^ a b "Miliardy na budowę. Tak powstawał Dworzec Centralny". TVN Warszawa.
- ^ "Centralny Dom Towarowy". Culture.pl.
- ^ a b "Edukacja w II Rzeczypospolitej". Niepodległa – stulecie odzyskania niepodległości.
- ^ a b "Polska. Oświata. Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa – Encyklopedia PWN – źródło wiarygodnej i rzetelnej wiedzy". encyklopedia.pwn.pl.
- JSTOR 20147803.
- ^ Zdzislawa Walaszek. An Open Issue of Legitimacy: The State and the Church in Poland. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 483, Religion and the State: The Struggle for Legitimacy and Power (January 1986), pp. 118–134
- ^ a b Mirek, Agata (2014). "Law as an Instrument of the Communist Authorities in the Fight against Orders in Poland". OL PAN. Teka Komisji Prawniczej: 64–72.
Planned atheisation afflicted all areas of activity of monastic communities [...] To victimise clergymen and consecrated people not only provisions of the criminal procedure were used, often violating not only the right for defence, but also basic human rights, allowing to use tortures in order to extort desired testimonies; also an entire system of legal norms, regulating the organisation and functioning of bodies of the judiciary, was used for victimising. Nuns also stood trials in communist courts, becoming victims of the fight of the atheist state against the Catholic Church. The majority of trials from the first decade of the Polish People's Republic in which nuns were in the dock had a political character. A mass propaganda campaign, saturated with hate, led in the press and on the radio, measured up against defendants, was their distinctive feature.
- ^ S2CID 146704335.
- ^ a b Ediger, Ruth M. (2005). "History of an institution as a factor for predicting church institutional behavior: the cases of the Catholic Church in Poland, the Orthodox Church in Romania, and the Protestant churches in East Germany". East European Quarterly. 39 (3).
- ^ Clark, Joanna Rostropowicz (2010). "The Church and the Communist Power". Sarmatian Review. 30 (2).
- ^ a b Wynot, Edward D. Jr. (2002). "Captive faith: the Polish Orthodox Church, 1945–1989". East European Quarterly. 36 (3).
- ^ "Historical documents detailing Vistula operation to deport 150,000 Polish Ukrainians now online -". 23 May 2017. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
- ^ Olchawa, Maciej (2 May 2017). "Ghosts of Operation Vistula". HuffPost. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
- ^ "Jews in Poland Since 1939" (PDF) Archived 7 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine, YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, Yale University Press, 2005
- ^ [Statistical Yearbook of Poland, Warsaw, 1965]
- ^ Schneider, Peter (15 April 1990). "Is Anyone German Here?; A Journey Into Silesia". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
- ^ "Poland most homogeneous in EU". Archived from the original on 9 July 2018. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
- ^ "Languages in Poland · Explore which languages are spoken in Poland". languageknowledge.eu. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
- ^ "Dr J. Pałka: Ludowe Wojsko Polskie wymyka się prostym klasyfikacjom". Retrieved 16 August 2018.
- ISSN 1731-8157.
- ^ a b "21–26 kwietnia 1945 r. – bitwa pod Budziszynem. Hekatomba 2. Armii Wojska Polskiego". 26 April 2016. Archived from the original on 16 August 2018. Retrieved 16 August 2018.
- ^ "Śląski Okręg Wojskowy". 14 April 2003. Retrieved 16 August 2018.
- ^ "POLAND: Child of the People". Time. 21 November 1949. Retrieved 16 August 2018 – via content.time.com.
- ^ "POLAND: Distrust in the Ranks". Time. 1 July 1957. Retrieved 16 August 2018 – via content.time.com.
Bibliography
- Ekiert, Grzegorz (March 1997). "Rebellious Poles: Political Crises and Popular Protest Under State Socialism, 1945–89". East European Politics and Societies. 11 (2). American Council of Learned Societies: 299–338. S2CID 144514807.
- ISBN 83-7023-461-5.
- Pucci, M. (14 July 2020). Security Empire: The Secret Police in Communist Eastern Europe. Yale-Hoover Series on Authoritarian Regimes. Yale University Press.[a]
Notes
- ^ Work covers the secret police in Poland, Czechoslovakia, and East Germany.
Further reading
External links
- PRL at Czas-PRL.pl (in Polish)
- Internetowe Muzeum Polski Ludowej at PolskaLudowa.com (in Polish)
- Muzeum PRL Archived 2 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine at MuzeumPRL.com (in Polish)
- Komunizm, socjalizm i czasy PRL-u Archived 3 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine at Komunizm.eu (in Polish)
- Propaganda komunistyczna (in Polish)
- PRL Tube, a categorized collection of videos from the Polish Communist period (in Polish)[dead link]