Peripheral artery disease

Peripheral artery disease (PAD) is a

When narrowing occurs in the heart, it is called coronary artery disease (CAD), and in the brain, it is called cerebrovascular disease.^[4] Peripheral artery disease most commonly affects the legs, but other arteries may also be involved, such as those of the arms, neck, or kidneys.^[4][17]

Peripheral artery disease (PAD) is a form of peripheral vascular disease. Vascular refers to both the arteries and veins within the body. PAD differs from peripheral veinous disease. PAD means the arteries are narrowed or blocked—the vessels that carry oxygen-rich blood as it moves away from the heart to other parts of the body. Peripheral veinous disease, on the other hand, refers to problems with veins—the vessels that bring the blood back to the heart.^[18]

The classic symptom is leg pain when walking, which resolves with rest and is known as intermittent claudication.^[2] Other symptoms include skin ulcers, bluish skin, cold skin, or abnormal nail and hair growth in the affected leg.^[3] Complications may include an infection or tissue death, which may require amputation; coronary artery disease; or stroke.^[4] Up to 50% of people with PAD do not have symptoms.^[2]

The greatest risk factor for PAD is

In 2015, about 155 million people had PAD worldwide.[13] It becomes more common with age.^[27] In the developed world, it affects about 5.3% of 45- to 50-year-olds and 18.6% of 85- to 90-year-olds.^[7] In the developing world, it affects 4.6% of people between the ages of 45 and 50 and 15% of people between the ages of 85 and 90.^[7] PAD in the developed world is equally common among men and women, though in the developing world, women are more commonly affected.^[7] In 2015, PAD resulted in about 52,500 deaths, which is an increase from the 16,000 deaths in 1990.^[14][28]

Signs and symptoms

The signs and symptoms of peripheral artery disease are based on the part of the body that is affected. About 66% of patients affected by PAD either do not have symptoms or have atypical symptoms.^[19] The most common presenting symptom is intermittent claudication (IC), which typically refers to lower extremity skeletal muscle pain that occurs during exercise. IC presents when there is insufficient oxygen delivery to meet the metabolic requirements of the skeletal muscles. IC is a common manifestation of peripheral arterial disease (PAD). The pain is usually located in the calf muscles of the affected leg and is relieved by rest.^[30] This occurs because during exercise, the muscles require more oxygen. Normally, the arteries would be able to increase the amount of blood flow and therefore increase the amount of oxygen going to the exercised muscle. However, in PAD, the artery is unable to respond appropriately to the increased demand for oxygen from the muscles, and as a result, the muscles are deprived of oxygen, leading to muscle pain that subsides with rest.^[30]

Other symptoms may include:^[31]

• Pain, aches, and/or cramps in the buttocks, hip, or thigh
• Muscle atrophy (muscle loss) of the affected limb
• Hair loss of the affected limb
• Skin that is smooth, shiny, or cool to the touch in the affected area
• Decreased or absent pulse in the feet
• Cold and/or numbness in the toes
• Sores/ulcers on the affected limb that do not heal

In individuals with severe PAD, complications may arise, including

Factors contributing to an increased risk of PAD are the same as those for atherosclerosis.^[34][35] These include age, sex, and ethnicity.^[36] PAD is twice as common in males as in females. In terms of ethnicity, PAD is more common in people of color compared to the white population in a 2:1 ratio.^[37] The factors with the greatest risk associations are hyperlipidemia, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, and smoking. Presenting three of these factors or more increases the risk of developing PAD tenfold.^[38]

• Smoking – Tobacco use in any form is the single greatest risk factor for peripheral artery disease internationally. Smokers have up to a 10-fold increase in the risk of PAD in a
  dose-response relationship.^[35] Exposure to second-hand smoke has also been shown to promote changes in the lining of blood vessels (endothelium), which can lead to atherosclerosis. Smokers are 2-3 times more likely to have lower extremity PAD than coronary artery disease.^[39] Greater than 80%–90% of patients with lower extremity peripheral arterial disease are current or former smokers.^[40] The risk of PAD increases with the number of cigarettes smoked per day and the number of years smoked.^[41][42]
• High blood sugar –
  Diabetes mellitus is shown to increase the risk of PAD by 2-4 fold. It does this by causing endothelial and smooth-muscle cell dysfunction in peripheral arteries.^[43][44][45] The risk of developing lower extremity peripheral arterial disease is proportional to the severity and duration of diabetes.^[46]
• High blood cholesterol – Dyslipidemia, which is an abnormally high level of cholesterol or fat in the blood.^[36] Dyslipidemia is caused by a high level of a protein called low-density lipoprotein (LDL cholesterol), low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL cholesterol), elevation of total cholesterol, and/or high triglyceride levels. This abnormality in blood cholesterol levels has been correlated with accelerated peripheral artery disease. Management of dyslipidemia by diet, exercise, and/or medication is associated with a major reduction in rates of heart attack and stroke.^[47]
• High blood pressure – Hypertension or elevated blood pressure can increase a person's risk of developing PAD. Similarly to PAD, there is a known association between high blood pressure and heart attacks, strokes, and abdominal aortic aneurysms. High blood pressure increases the risk of intermittent claudication, the most common symptom of PAD, by 2.5- to 4-fold in men and women, respectively.^[48]
• Other risk factors that are being studied include levels of various inflammatory mediators such as C-reactive protein, fibrinogen, homocysteine, and lipoprotein A.^[49] Individuals with increased levels of homocysteine in their blood have a 2-fold risk of developing peripheral artery disease.^[36] While there are genetic factors leading to risk factors for peripheral artery disease, including diabetes and high blood pressure, there have been no specific genes or gene mutations directly associated with the development of peripheral artery disease.^[36]

High risk populations

Peripheral arterial disease is more common in these populations:^[42][50]

• All people who have leg symptoms with exertion (suggestive of claudication) or ischemic rest pain
• All people aged 65 years and over, regardless of risk factor status
• All people between 50 and 69 who have a cardiovascular risk factor (particularly diabetes or smoking)
• Age less than 50 years, with diabetes and one other atherosclerosis risk factor (smoking, dyslipidemia, hypertension, or hyperhomocysteinemia)
• Individuals with an abnormal lower extremity
  pulse examination
• Those with known atherosclerotic coronary, carotid, or renal artery disease
• All people with a
  Framingham risk score
  of 10%–20%
• All people who have previously experienced chest pain

Etiology and pathophysiology

Peripheral arterial disease is considered to be a set of chronic or acute syndromes, generally derived from the presence of occlusive arterial disease, which causes inadequate blood flow to the limbs.^[51][52]

As previously mentioned, the most common etiology of peripheral artery disease, especially in patients over 40 years old, is atherosclerosis.^[19] Atherosclerosis is a narrowing of the arteries caused by lipid or fat buildup and calcium deposition in the wall of the affected arteries.

The pathophysiology of atherosclerosis involves complex interactions between cholesterol and vascular cells.^[52] In the early stages of PAD, the arteries compensate for the plaque buildup by dilating to preserve flow through the vessel. Eventually, the artery cannot dilate any further, and the atherosclerotic plaque starts to narrow the arterial flow lumen.^[51]

When there is an imbalance between the needs of the peripheral tissues and the blood supply, we are faced with a situation of ischemia.

From the pathophysiologic point of view, a restriction of blood supply (ischemia) to the lower limbs can be classified as either functional or critical. Functional ischemia occurs when the blood flow is normal at rest but insufficient during exercise, presenting clinically as intermittent claudication. Critical ischemia is produced when the reduction in blood flow results in a perfusion deficit at rest and is defined by the presence of pain at rest or trophic lesions in the legs. In this situation, precise diagnosis is fundamental, as there is a clear risk of loss of the limb if adequate blood flow is not re-established, either by surgery or by endovascular therapy. Differentiating between the two concepts is important in order to establish the therapeutic indication and the prognosis in patients with PAD.^[52]

Other causes include vasculitis and in situ thrombosis related to hypercoagulable states.^[53] Additional mechanisms of peripheral artery disease include arterial spasm and fibromuscular dysplasia.^[19] The cause and pathophysiology of arterial spasm are not fully understood, but it is hypothesised that they can occur secondary to trauma.^[54] The symptoms of claudication ensue when the artery spasms, or clamps down on itself, creating an obstruction. Similar to atherosclerosis, this leads to decreased blood flow to the tissue downstream of the obstruction. Thrombosis, or the formation of a blood clot, usually occurs due to stasis or trauma.^[54]

Diagnosis

Diagnosing or identifying peripheral artery disease requires a history of symptoms and a physical exam, followed by confirmatory testing.^[20] These tests could include CT scans (Computed Tomographic Angiography), MRA scans (Magnetic Resonance Angiography), or ultrasounds for imaging.^[31] In the setting of symptoms consistent with peripheral artery disease, a physician will then examine an individual for specific exam findings. Abnormal physical exam findings can lead a health care provider to consider a specific diagnosis.^[19] However, in order to confirm a diagnosis, confirmatory testing is required.^[20]

These findings are associated with peripheral artery disease:^[19]

• Decreased or absent pulses
• Muscle atrophy or wasting
• Noticeable blueness of the affected limb
• Decreased temperature (coolness) in the affected limb when compared to the other
• Thickened nails
• Smooth or shiny skin and hair loss
• Buerger's test can check for pallor when the affected limb is in an elevated position. The limb is then moved from an elevated to a sitting position and checked for redness, which is called reactive hyperemia. Buerger's test is an assessment of arterial sufficiency, which is the ability of the artery to supply oxygenated blood to the tissue that it goes to.
• Nonhealing lower extremity wound^[38]

If peripheral artery disease is suspected, the initial study is the

Individuals with suspected PAD with normal ABIs can undergo exercise testing for ABI. A baseline ABI is obtained prior to exercise. The patient is then asked to exercise (usually patients are made to walk on a treadmill at a constant speed) until claudication pain occurs (for a maximum of 5 minutes), after which the ankle pressure is again measured. A decrease in ABI of 15%–20% would be diagnostic of PAD.[42]^[50]

If ABIs are abnormal, the next step is generally a lower limb

Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) is a noninvasive diagnostic procedure that uses a combination of a large magnet, radio frequencies, and a computer to produce detailed images of blood vessels inside the body. The advantages of MRA include its safety and ability to provide high-resolution, three-dimensional imaging of the entire abdomen, pelvis, and lower extremities in one sitting.^[60][61]

Classification

The two most commonly used methods to classify peripheral artery disease are the Fontaine and Rutherford systems of classification.^[62] The Fontaine stages were introduced by René Fontaine in 1954 to define the severity of chronic limb ischemia:^[50][62][63]

• Stage I: asymptomatic
• Stage IIa: intermittent claudication after walking a distance of more than 200 meters
• Stage IIb: intermittent claudication after walking a distance of less than 200 meters
• Stage III: rest pain
• Stage IV: ulcers or gangrene of the limb

The Rutherford classification was created by the Society for Vascular Surgery and the International Society of Cardiovascular Surgery, introduced in 1986 and revised in 1997 (and known as the Rutherford classification after the lead author, Robert B. Rutherford). This classification system consists of four grades and seven categories (categories 0–6):^[50][64]

• Grade 0, Category 0: asymptomatic
• Grade I, Category 1: mild claudication
• Grade I, Category 2: moderate claudication
• Grade I, Category 3: severe claudication
• Grade II, Category 4: rest pain
• Grade III, Category 5: minor tissue loss; ischemic ulceration not exceeding ulcer of the digits of the foot
• Grade IV, Category 6: major tissue loss; severe ischemic ulcers or frank gangrene

Moderate to severe PAD, classified by Fontaine's stages III to IV or Rutherford's categories 4 to 5, presents a limb threat (risk of limb loss) in the form of

Recently, the Society for Vascular Surgery came out with a classification system based on "wound, ischemia and foot infection" (WIfI).^[66] This classification system, published in 2013, was created to account for the demographic changes that have occurred over the past forty years, including the increased incidence of high blood sugar and evolving techniques and abilities for revascularization. This system was created on the basis that ischemia and angiographic disease patterns are not the sole determinants of amputation risk.^[67] The WIfI classification system is broken up into two parts: wounds and ischemia. Wounds are graded 0 through 3 based on the presence of ulceration, gangrene, and ischemia.^[66]

• Grade 0: no ulcer, no gangrene
• Grade 1: small, shallow ulcer; no gangrene
• Grade 2: deep ulcer with exposed tendon or bone, gangrene limited to toes
• Grade 3: extensive, full-thickness ulcer; gangrene extending to the forefoot or midfoot

Ischemia is graded 0 through 3 based on ABI, ankle systolic pressure, and toe pressure.^[66]

• Grade 0: ABI ≥0.80, ankle systolic pressure ≥100 mm Hg, toe pressure ≥60 mm Hg
• Grade 1: arterial brachial index 0.6 to 0.79, ankle systolic pressure 70 to 100 mm Hg, toe pressure 40 to 59 mm Hg
• Grade 2: ABI 0.4–0.59, ankle systolic pressure 50 to 70 mm Hg, toe pressure 30 to 39 mm Hg
• Grade 3: ABI ≤0.39, ankle systolic pressure <50 mm Hg, toe pressure <30 mm Hg

The TASC (and TASC II) classification suggests PAD treatment is based on the severity of disease seen on an

Testing for coronary artery disease or carotid artery disease is of unclear benefit.[20] While PAD is a risk factor for abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAA), there is no data on screening individuals with asymptomatic PAD for abdominal aortic aneurysms.^[20] For people with symptomatic PAD, screening by ultrasound for AAA is not unreasonable.^[20]

Wearable devices and remote patient monitoring

A 2022 review found that a variety of wearable medical devices measuring different parameters (such as body temperature) were being combined with remote patient monitoring of PAD patients, in a goal to improve health outcomes.^[70]

Some studies propose the development of devices measuring oxygen continuously during exercise. This is because resting perfusion and metabolic activity are extremely low and differences between non-patients and PAD patients are barely measurable. As such, testing of vascular function and energetics requires a physiological challenge.

Depending on the severity of the disease, these steps can be taken, according to these guidelines:[74]

Lifestyle

• Stopping smoking (cigarettes promote PAD and are a risk factor for cardiovascular disease)
• Regular exercise for those with claudication
  limitation in walking often improves. Treadmill exercise (35 to 50 minutes, three or four times per week^[34]
  ) has been reviewed as another treatment with a number of positive outcomes, including a reduction in cardiovascular events and improved quality of life. Supervised exercise programs increase pain-free walking time and the maximum walking distance in people with PAD.

• Management of diabetes
• Management of hypertension
• Statins
  reduce clot formation and cholesterol levels, respectively, and can help with disease progression and address the other cardiovascular risks that the affected person is likely to have.

According to guidelines, taking aspirin or clopidogrel is recommended to reduce

Cilostazol can improve symptoms in some people.^[23] Pentoxifylline is of unclear benefit.^[76] Cilostazol may improve walking distance for people who experience claudication due to peripheral artery disease, but no strong evidence suggests that it improves the quality of life, decreases mortality, or decreases the risk of cardiovascular events.^[23]

Treatment with other drugs or vitamins is unsupported by clinical evidence, "but trials evaluating the effect of folate and vitamin B₁₂ on hyperhomocysteinemia, a putative vascular risk factor, are near completion".^[74]

Revascularization

After a trial of the best medical treatment outlined above, if symptoms persist, patients may be referred to a vascular or endovascular surgeon. The benefit of revascularization is thought to correspond to the severity of ischemia and the presence of other risk factors for limb loss, such as wound and infection severity.^[67]

• subsartorial artery open.^[80]

• Atherectomy, in which the plaque is scraped off the inside of the vessel wall (albeit with no better results than angioplasty).^[81]
• PTFE
  ) material is often used for long grafts when adequate venous conduit is unavailable.
• When gangrene has set in, amputation may be required to prevent infected tissues from causing sepsis, a life-threatening illness.
• arterial thrombosis or embolism
  .
• shockwave intravascular lithotripsy, a minimally-invasive method which uses ultrasound waves to break up plaque within the artery without need for penetration. The method was first approved by the US Food and Drug Administration in February 2021,^[82] and has been used as a complement to more widely-used methods of atherectomy.

Guidelines

A guideline from the American College of Cardiology and American Heart Association for the diagnosis and treatment of lower extremity, renal, mesenteric, and abdominal aortic PAD was compiled in 2013, combining the 2005 and 2011 guidelines.^[42] For chronic limb-threatening ischemia, the ACCF/AHA guidelines recommend balloon angioplasty only for people with a life expectancy of 2 years or less or those who do not have an autogenous vein available. For those with a life expectancy greater than 2 years or who have an autogenous vein, bypass surgery is recommended.^[83]

Prognosis

Individuals with PAD have an "exceptionally elevated risk for cardiovascular events and the majority will eventually die of a cardiac or cerebrovascular etiology".^[84] Prognosis is correlated with the severity of the PAD as measured by an ABI.^[84] Large-vessel PAD increases mortality from cardiovascular disease significantly. PAD carries a greater than "20% risk of a coronary event in 10 years".^[84]

The risk is low that an individual with claudication will develop severe ischemia and require amputation, but the risk of death from coronary events is three to four times higher than matched controls without claudication.^[74] Of patients with intermittent claudication, only "7% will undergo lower-extremity bypass surgery, 4% major amputations, and 16% worsening claudication", but stroke and heart attack events are elevated, and the "5-year mortality rate is estimated to be 30% (versus 10% in controls)".^[84]

Epidemiology

The prevalence of PAD in the general population is 3–7%, affecting up to 20% of those over 70;^[85] 70%–80% of affected individuals are asymptomatic; only a minority ever require revascularization or amputation.^{[citation needed]} Peripheral artery disease affects one in three diabetics over the age of 50. In the US, it affects 12–20 percent of Americans age 65 and older. Around 10 million Americans have PAD. Despite its prevalence and implications for cardiovascular risk, there are still low levels of awareness of risk factors and symptoms, with 26% of the population in the US reported to have knowledge of PAD.^{[86][citation needed]}

In 2000, among people aged 40 years and older in the United States, rates of PAD were 4.3%.

The incidence of symptomatic PAD increases with age, from about 0.3% per year for men aged 40–55 years to about 1% per year for men aged over 75 years. The prevalence of PAD varies considerably depending on how PAD is defined and the age of the population being studied. People diagnosed with PAD have a greater risk of a MACE (Major Adverse Cardiac Event) and stroke. Their risk of developing a reinfarction, stroke, or transient ischemic attack within one year following a heart attack increases to 22.9%, compared to 11.4% for those without PAD.[88]

The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial and the UK Prospective Diabetes Study trials in people with

Research is being done on therapies to prevent the progression of PAD.[90] In those who have developed critically poor blood flow to the legs, the benefit of autotransplantation of autologous mononuclear cells is unclear.^[91]

Only one

In 2011, pCMV-vegf165 was registered in Russia as the first-in-class gene therapy drug for the treatment of PAD, including the advanced stage of critical limb ischemia.^[96][97]

References