*Perkʷūnos
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*Perkʷūnos | |
---|---|
Other names | *(S)tenh₂ros |
Abode | *Perkʷūnyós |
Weapons | *ml̥dʰnis, *h₂éḱmō, *wóǵros |
Symbols | Perkunas |
Celtic equivalent | Taranis |
Hittite equivalent | Tarḫunna |
*Perkʷūnos (Proto-Indo-European: 'the Striker' or 'the Lord of Oaks') is the reconstructed name of the weather god in Proto-Indo-European mythology. The deity was connected with fructifying rains, and his name was probably invoked in times of drought. In a widespread Indo-European myth, the thunder-deity fights a multi-headed water-serpent during an epic battle in order to release torrents of water that had previously been pent up. The name of his weapon, *ml̥dʰnis, which denoted both "lightning" and "hammer", can be reconstructed from the attested traditions.[citation needed]
*Perkʷūnos was often associated with oaks, probably because such tall trees are frequently struck by lightning, and his realm was located in the wooded mountains, *Perkʷūnyós. A term for the sky, *h₂éḱmō, apparently denoted a "heavenly vault of stone", but also "thunderbolt" or "stone-made weapon", in which case it was sometimes also used to refer to the thunder-god's weapon.
Contrary to other deities of the Proto-Indo-European pantheon, such as *
Name
Etymology
The name *Perkwunos is generally regarded as stemming from the
The theonym *Perkwunos thus either meant "the Striker" or "the Lord of Oaks".[11][12] A theory uniting those two etymologies has been proposed in the mythological association of oaks with thunder, suggested by the frequency with which such tall trees are struck by lightning.[13][3][7]
The existence of a female consort is suggested by gendered doublet-forms such as those found in South Slavic
The noun *perkwunos also gave birth to a group of cognates for the ordinary word "thunder", including Old Prussian percunis, Polish piorun ("thunderbolt"), Latvian pērkauns ("thunderbolt"), or Lithuanian perkūnas ("thunder") and perkūnija ("thunderstorm").[3][16]
Epithets
Other Indo-European theonyms related to 'thunder', through another root *(s)tenh₂-, are found in the Germanic
Another possible epithet was *tr̥h₂wónts "conquering", from *térh₂uti "to overcome", with its descendants being Hittite god Tarḫunna, Luwian Tarḫunz, and Sanskrit तूर्वत् (tūrvat), epithet of a storm-god Indra.[20][21]
George E. Dunkel regarded Perkwunos as an original epithet of Dyēus, the Sky-God.[22] It has also been postulated that Perkwunos was referred to as *Diwós Putlós ('son of Dyēus'), although this is based on the Vedic poetic tradition alone.[11]
Depiction
Weapon
Perkwunos is usually depicted as holding a weapon, named *meld-n- in the Baltic and Old Norse traditions, which personifies lightning and is generally conceived as a club, mace, or hammer made of stone or metal.[23][24] In the Latvian poetic expression Pērkōns met savu milnu ("Pērkōn throws his mace"), the mace (milna) is cognate with the Old Norse mjölnir, the hammer thrown by the thunder god Thor, and also with the word for 'lightning' in the Old Prussian mealde, the Old Church Slavonic *mlъni, or the Welsh mellt.[3][24][25]
Fructifying rains
While his thunder and lightning had a destructive connotation, they could also be seen as a regenerative force since they were often accompanied by fructifying rains.
Perëndi is especially
A mythical multi-headed water-serpent is connected with the thunder-deity in an epic battle. The monstrous foe is a "blocker of waters", and his heads are eventually smashed by the thunder-deity to release the pent-up torrents of rain.
Striker and god of oaks
The association of Perkwunos with the oak is attested in various formulaic expressions from the Balto-Slavic languages: Lithuanian Perkūno ąžuolas (Perkūnas's oak), Latvian Pērkōna uōzuōls ('Pērkōn's oak'), or Old Russian Perunovŭ dubŭ ('Perun's oak'). In the Albanian language, a word to refer to the lightning—considered in folk beliefs as the "fire of the sky"—is shkreptimë, a formation of shkrep meaning "to flash, tone, to strike (till sparks fly off)".[32] An association between strike, stones and fire, can be related to the observation that one can kindle fire by striking stones against each other. The act of producing fire through a strike—reflected also in the belief that fire is residual within the oak trees after the thunder-god strikes them—indicates the potential of lightning in the myth of creation.[3] The Slavic thunder-god Perūn is said to frequently strike oaks to put fire within them, and the Norse thunder-god Thor to strike his foes the giants when they hide under an oak.[3][33] According to Belarusian folklore, Piarun made the first fire ever by striking a tree in which the Demon was hiding.[34]
The striking of devils, demons, or evildoers by Perkwunos is another motif in the myths surrounding the Baltic Perkūnas and the Vedic Parjanya.[35][3] In Lithuanian and Latvian folkloric material, Perkunas/Perkons is invoked to protect against snakes and illness.[36]
Wooded mountains
Perkwunos is often portrayed in connection with stone and (wooded) mountains; mountainous forests were considered to be his realm.
In Germanic mythology, Fjörgynn was used as a poetic synonym for 'the land, the earth', and she could have originally been the mistress of the wooded mountains, the personification of what appears in Gothic as fairguni ('wooded mountain').[37] Additionally, the Baltic tradition mentions a perpetual sacred fire dedicated to Perkūnas and fuelled by oakwood in the forests or on hilltops. Pagans believed that Perkūnas would freeze if Christians extinguished those fires.[34][40]
Words from a stem *pér-ur- are also attested in the Hittite pēru ('rock, cliff, boulder'),[41] the Avestan pauruuatā ('mountains'),[42] as well as in the Sanskrit goddess Parvati and the epithet Parvateshwara ('lord of mountains'), attached to her father Himavat.[43][44]
Stony skies
A term for the sky, *h₂ekmōn, denoted both 'stone' and 'heaven', possibly a 'heavenly vault of stone' akin to the biblical firmament.[45][46] The motif of the stony skies can be found in the story of the Greek Akmon ('anvil'), the father of Ouranos and the personified Heaven.[47] The term akmon was also used with the meaning 'thunderbolt' in Homeric and Hesiodic diction.[48] Other cognates appear in the Vedic áśman ('stone'), the Iranian deity Asman ('stone, heaven'), the Lithuanian god Akmo (mentioned alongside Perkūnas himself), and also in the Germanic *hemina (German: Himmel, English: heaven) and *hamara (cf. Old Norse: hamarr, which could mean 'rock, boulder, cliff' or 'hammer').[48][24][45][49] Akmo is described in a 16th-century treatise as a saxum grandius, 'a sizeable stone', which was still worshipped in Samogitia.[50][51]
The mythological association can be explained by the observation (e.g., meteorites) or the belief that thunderstones (polished ones for axes in particular) had fallen from the sky.[54] Indeed, the Vedic word áśman is the name of the weapon thrown by Indra, Thor's weapon is also called hamarr, and the thunder-stone can be named Perkūno akmuõ ('Perkuna's stone') in the Lithuanian tradition.[55][47][56] Scholars have also noted that Perkūnas and Piarun are said to strike rocks instead of oaks in some themes of the Lithuanian and Belarusian folklores,[57] and that the Slavic Perūn sends his axe or arrow from a mountain or the sky.[40] The original meaning of *h₂ekmōn could thus have been 'stone-made weapon', then 'sky' or 'lightning'.[58]
Evidence
Theonyms
The following deities are cognates stemming from *Perkwunos or related names in Western Indo-European mythologies:
- PIE: *per-, 'to strike' (or *pérkʷus, the 'oak'),[1][12]
- PIE: *per-kwun-os, the weather god,[1]
- Baltic:
- Old Prussian: Perkunis,[3][4]
- Latgalian: Pārkiuņs (ltg);[64]
- Lithuanian: Perkūnas, the god of rain and thunder, depicted as an angry-looking man with a tawny beard,[3][4]
- Latvian: Pērkōns, whose functions are occasionally merged with those of Dievs (the sky-god) in the Latvian dainas (folk songs),[3][4]
- Percunatele or Perkunatele, a female deity associated with Perkunas, as mother or wife;[65][66]
- Baltic:
- PIE: *per-uh₁n-os, the 'one with the thunder stone',[3][11]
- Slavic: *perunъ[67]
- Old Church Slavonic: Perūn (Перýн), the 'maker of the lightning',[3][68]
- Old East Slavic: Perunŭ, Belarusian: Piarun (Пярун),[69][70] Czech: Peraun,[71]
- Slovak: Perún; Parom; [3][33][a]
- Bulgarian: Perun (Перун);[73][74]
- Polish: Piorun ("lightning");[75]
- Russian: Peryn, a peninsula in Novgorod, Russia, connected to a historical worship of Slavic Perun.[76]
- Perperuna, a reduplicated feminine derivative from Perun's name which parallels the Old Norse couple Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija,[14][15]
- Slavic: *perunъ[67]
- PIE: *per-kwun-iyo (feminine *per-kwun-iyā, the 'realm of Perkwunos', i.e. the [wooded] mountains),[77][37][7][5]
- Celtic: *ferkunyā,[78][7]
- Germanic: *fergunja, meaning 'mountain', perhaps 'mountainous forest' (or the feminine equivalent of *ferga, 'god'),[6]
- Old Norse: Fjörgyn, the mother of the thunder-god Thor, the goddess of the wooded landscape and a poetic synonym for 'land' or 'the earth',[3][83]
- Gothic: fairguni (𐍆𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌲𐌿𐌽𐌹), '(wooded) mountain', and fairhus, 'world', Old English: firgen, 'mountain', 'wooded hill',[6][5]
- Old High German: Firgunnea, the Ore Mountains, and Virgundia Waldus, Virgunnia, 'oaks forest',[6][5]
-
- Old Church Slavonic: prӗgynja, Old East Slavic: peregynja, 'wooded hills';[37] Polish: przeginia (toponym),[84]
- Celtic: *ferkunyā,[78][7]
- PIE: *per-kwun-os, the weather god,[1]
Thunder-god's weapon
The name of Perkwunos' weapon *meld-n- is attested by a group of
- PIE: *melh₂-, 'to grind',[85]
- Northern PIE: *mel-d-(n)-, 'thunder-god's hammer > lightning',[24][86][85]
- Germanic: *melðunijaz,[24][87]
- Balto-Slavic: *mild-n-,[25]
- Slavic: *mlъldni,[25]
- Old Church Slavonic: mlъni or mlъnii, Serbo-Croatian: múnja (муња), Slovene mółnja,[25] Bulgarian: мълния,[88] Macedonian: молња, 'lightning',[89]
- Russian: mólnija (молния), 'lightning', Ukrainian maladnjá (dial.) 'lightning without thunder',[25] Belarusian: маланка, 'lightning',[88]
- Baltic: *mildnā,[24]
- Old Prussian: mealde, 'lightning bolt',[86]
- Latvian: milna, the 'hammer of the Thunderer', Pērkōns,[86]
- Celtic: *meldo-,[85]
- Gaulish: Meldos, an epithet of thunder divinity Loucetios;[93][94] as well as Meldi (*Meldoi), a tribal name, and Meldio, a personal name.[85]
- Welsh: mellt, 'lightning, thunderbolts' (sing. mellten, 'bolt of lightning'), and Mabon am Melld or Mabon fab Mellt ('Mabon son of Mellt'),[24][85]
- Breton: mell, 'hammer',[87][95]
- Middle Irish: mell, 'rounded summit, small hill', possibly via semantic contamination from *ferkunyā, '(wooded) mountains'.[95]
- Armenian: մուրճ (mowrtch), 'hammer'.[citation needed]
- Northern PIE: *mel-d-(n)-, 'thunder-god's hammer > lightning',[24][86][85]
Another PIE term derived from the verbal root *melh₂- ('to grind'), *molh₁-tlo- ('grinding device'), also served as a common word for 'hammer', as in Old Church Slavonic mlatъ, Latin malleus, and Hittite malatt ('sledgehammer, bludgeon').[85]
19th-century scholar Francis Hindes Groome cited the existence of the "Gypsy" (Romani) word malúna as a loanword from Slavic molnija.[96] The Komi word molńi or molńij ('lightning') has also been borrowed from Slavic.[97]
Heavenly vault of stone
- PIE: *h₂eḱ-, 'sharp',[98]
- PIE: *h₂éḱmōn (gen. *h₂ḱmnós; loc. *h₂ḱméni), 'stone, stone-made weapon' > 'heavenly vault of stone',[46][98][58]
- Indo-Aryan: *Haćman,[44]
- Greek: ákmōn (ἄκμων), 'anvil, meteoric stone, thunderbolt, heaven',[48][99]
- Balto-Slavic: *akmen-,[99]
- Lithuanian: akmuõ, 'stone',[99]
- Latvian: akmens, 'stone',[99]
- Germanic: *hemō (gen.*hemnaz, dat. *hemeni), 'heaven',[46][98]
- Gothic: himins, 'heaven',[46][98]
- Old English: heofon, Old Frisian: himel, Old Saxon: heƀan, Old Dutch: himil, Old High German: himil, 'heaven',[46][98]
- Old Norse: himinn, 'heaven',[46][98]
- PIE: *h₂éḱmōn (gen. *h₂ḱmnós; loc. *h₂ḱméni), 'stone, stone-made weapon' > 'heavenly vault of stone',[46][98][58]
A metathesized stem *ḱ(e)h₂-m-(r)- can also be reconstructed from Slavic *kamy ('stone'), Germanic *hamaraz ('hammer'), and Greek kamára ('vault').[98]
Other possible cognates
- Indo-Iranian:
- Vedic: Parjanya, the god of rain, thunder and lightning (although Sanskrit sound laws rather predict a parkūn(y)a form; an intermediate form *pergwenyo- has therefore been postulated, possibly descending from *per-kwun-(y)o-).[1][100][11]
- Nuristani: Pärun (or Pērūneî), a war god worshipped in Kafiristan (present-day Nuristan Province, Afghanistan),[3][11]
- Scythian: in the 19th century, Russian folklorist Alexander Afanasyev and French philologist Frédéric-Guillaume Bergmann (fr) mentioned the existence of a Scythian deity named Pirkunas or Pirchunas, an epithet attached to the "Scythian Divus" and meaning 'rainy'.[102][103]
- Celtic *(h)erku- ('oak'),[7]
- Celtiberian: berkunetakam ('Perkunetaka'), a word attested in the Botorrita Plate I and interpreted as a sacred oak grove,[106][107][108]
- Pyrenees: the theonym Expercennius, attested in an inscription found in Cathervielle and possibly referring to an oak god. His name might mean 'six oaks'.[109]
- Gaulish: ercos ('oak'),[7]
- Gallo-Roman: references to 'Deus Ercus' (in Aquitania), 'Nymphae Percernae' (Narbonensis), and a deity named 'Hercura' (or Erecura) which appears throughout the provinces of the Roman Empire.[81][110] Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel argues that Aerecura/Hercura derives from a Celtic *perk(w)ura.[111]
- Irish: Erc (mac Cairpri), mentioned at the end of Táin Bó Cúailnge, and placed on the throne of Tara by Conchobar mac Nessa in Cath Ruis na Ríg for Bóinn;[112] although an alternative etymology from PIE *perk- ('color') > *perk-no ('[spotted] fish') has been proposed by Hamp and Matasović.[113]
- Greek: keraunos (κεραυνός), the name of Zeus’s thunderbolt, which was sometimes also deified (by metathesis of *per(k)aunos; although the root *ḱerh₂-, 'shatter, smash' has also been proposed),[10][114] and the Herkyna spring-nymph, associated with a river of the same name and identified with Demeter (the name could be a borrowing as it rather follows Celtic sound laws),[9][10]
- Hittite: the words perunas and peruni are attested in a Hittite text of The Song of Ullikummi, and refer to a female being made of 'Rock' or 'Stone' who gives birth to a rocky creature.[115][116]
- Italic:
- Slavic
- Pomeranian: Porenut, latinized as Porenutius in the work of Saxo Grammaticus. The name is believed to refer to a deity worshipped in the port city of Rügen in ancient times as a possible son of Perun.[117][73]
- Romano-Germanic: inscriptions to the Matronae 'Ala-ferhuiae' found in Bonn, Altdorf, or Dormagen.[5][118]
- Paleo-Balkanic:
- Caucasus: it has been suggested that the characters Пиръон (Piryon) and Пиръа (Pirya) may attest the presence of the thunder god's name in the Caucasus.[124]
Legacy
Louis Léger stated that the Polabians adopted Perun as their name for Thursday (Perendan or Peräunedån), which is likely a calque of German Donnerstag.[125]
Some scholars argue that the functions of the
Toponyms
Scholarship indicates the existence of a holdover of the theonym in European toponymy, specially in Eastern European and Slavic-speaking regions.
In the territory that encompasses the modern day city of
Places in South-Slavic-speaking lands are considered to be reflexes of Slavic god Perun, such as Perunac, Perunovac, Perunika, Perunićka Glava, Peruni Vrh, Perunja Ves, Peruna Dubrava, Perunuša, Perušice, Perudina, and Perutovac.[134] Scholar Marija Gimbutas cited the existence of the place names Perunowa gora (Poland), Perun Gora (Serbia), Gora Perun (Romania), and Porun hill (Istria).[135] Patrice Lajoye associates place names in the Balkans with the Slavic god Perun: the city of Pernik and the mountain range Pirin (in Bulgaria), as well as a location named Përrenjas in South Albania. He also proposes that the German city of Pronstorf is also related to Perun, since it is located near Segeberg, whose former name was Perone in 1199.[136]
The name of the Baltic deity Perkunas is also attested in Baltic toponyms and hydronyms: a village called Perkūniškės in
See also
- Indo-European smith god
Footnotes
References
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Further reading
- General studies
- Blinkenberg, Christian. The Thunderweapon In Religion And Folklore: a Study In Comparative Archaeology. Cambridge [Eng.]: The University press, 1911.
- Chadwick, H. Munro (1900). "The Oak and the Thunder-God". The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 30: 22–44. JSTOR 2842615.
- Cotton, Gérard (1931). "Orientalia I: Parjányah, le dieu qui <<frappe>> de la foudre". Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire. 10 (3): 579–585. ISSN 0035-0818.
- Haffter, P. (1972). "The Designations of the Oak in Romance Languages". Acta Classica. 15: 95–112. JSTOR 24591271.
- Ivanov, Viatcheslav; Toporov, Vladimir (1970). "Le Mythe Indo-européen du Dieu de l'Orage Poursuivant le Serpent: Reconstruction du Schéma". Échanges et communications, II: Mélanges offerts à Claude Lévi-Strauss à l'occasion de son 60ème anniversaire. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 1180–1206. ISBN 978-3-11-169828-1.
- Lajoye, Patrice (2010). "Quirinus, un ancien dieu tonnant? Nouvelles hypothèses sur son étymologie et sa nature primitive". Revue de l'histoire des religions. 227 (2): 175–194. ISBN 978-2251453-12-5.
- ISBN 9986-513-14-6.
- For the etymology of the Indo-European weather-god, see
- Carnoy, Albert (1958). "Le chêne dans la toponymie et la linguistique". Revue Internationale d'Onomastique. 10 (2): 81–101. ISSN 0048-8151.
- For the association with "stones", "mountains" and "heaven", see
- Beckwith, Miles C. (1998). "The 'Hanging of Hera' and the Meaning of Greek ἄκμων". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 98: 91–102. JSTOR 311338.
- Hamp, Eric P. (1967). "On the Notions of 'Stone' and 'Mountain' in Indo-European". Journal of Linguistics. 3 (1): 83–90. S2CID 145440332.
- Mitchell, Stephen A. (1985). "The Whetstone as Symbol of Authority in Old English and Old Norse". Scandinavian Studies. 57 (1): 1–31. JSTOR 40918675.