Perry Expedition
The Perry Expedition (
The expedition was commanded by
Background
Growing commerce between America and
By the early 19th century, the Japanese policy of isolation was increasingly under challenge. In 1844, Dutch King William II sent a letter urging Japan to end the isolation policy on its own before change would be forced from the outside.[2] Between 1790 and 1853, at least twenty-seven U.S. ships, including three warships, visited Japan, only to be turned away.
There were increased sightings and incursions of foreign ships into Japanese waters, and this led to considerable internal debate in Japan on how best to meet this potential threat to Japan's economic and political sovereignty. In May 1851, American Secretary of State Daniel Webster authorized Commodore John H. Aulick, commander of the American East India Squadron, to attempt to return seventeen shipwrecked Japanese sailors residing in San Francisco, which might provide the opportunity for opening commercial relations with Japan. On May 10, 1851, Webster drafted a letter addressed to the "Japanese Emperor" with assurances that the expedition had no religious purpose but was only to request "friendship and commerce" and supplies of coal needed by American ships en route to China.[3]
The letter also boasted of American expansion across the North American continent and its technical prowess and was signed by President Fillmore. However, Aulick became involved in a diplomatic row with a Brazilian diplomat and quarrels with the captain of his flagship, and was relieved of his command before he could undertake the Japan expedition.[4] His replacement, Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry, was a senior-ranking officer in the United States Navy, and had extensive diplomatic experience.
Preparation
Perry was well aware of the difficulties involved in attempting to establish relations with Japan and initially protested that he would prefer to command the Mediterranean Squadron of the U.S. Navy instead of being assigned to yet another attempt to open Japan, which he considered unlikely to succeed. Relevant precedents included:
- From 1797 to 1809, several American ships traded in Nagasaki under the Dutch flag upon the request of the Dutch, who were not able to send their own ships because of their conflict with the United Kingdom during the Napoleonic Wars.
- In 1837, an American businessman in Washington. He went to Uraga Channelwith Morrison, an American merchant ship. The ship was attacked several times and sailed back without completing its mission.
- In 1846, Commander
- In 1849, Captain James Glynn sailed to Nagasaki, leading at last to the first successful negotiation by an American with Japan. James Glynn recommended to the United States Congress that negotiations to open Japan be backed up by a demonstration of force, thus paving the way for Perry's expedition.[6]
In advance of his voyage, Perry read widely amongst available books about Japan. His research also included consultation with the renowned
The expedition was assigned the steam warships
First visit to Japan, 1852–1853
Perry chose the black-hulled paddle-wheeled Mississippi as his
Perry then switched his flag to Susquehanna and called on the
Threat of force and negotiation
Perry finally reached
The American ships were almost surrounded by Japanese guard boats; however, Perry ordered that any attempt at boarding was to be repelled. One boat carried a large sign in French ordering the American fleet to depart immediately. On 9 July, a
On 10 July, yoriki Kayama Eizaemon, pretending to be the Uraga bugyō, called on Susquehanna and was allowed to meet Captain Franklin, whom he advised to travel to Nagasaki, as this was the designated port for all foreign contact. Kayama was told that unless a suitable official came to receive the document, Perry would land troops and march on Edo, to deliver the letter in person. Kayama asked for three days in order to respond. The actual Uraga bugyō, Ido Hiromichi, sent a report to the shōgun and advised that his defenses were totally inadequate to repel the Americans by force.[2]
In the meantime, Perry began a campaign of intimidation, by sending boats to survey the surrounding area, and threatened to use force if the Japanese guard boats around the American squadron did not disperse.[11] He also presented the Japanese with a white flag and a letter which told them that in case they chose combat, the Americans would necessarily vanquish them.[14][15]
The Japanese government was paralyzed due to the incapacitation by illness of
After Perry's departure, an extensive debate ensued within the shogunal court on how to respond to the American's implied threats. Shōgun
The results of the poll also failed to provide Abe with an answer, as of the 61 known responses, 19 were in favor of accepting the American demands, and 19 were equally opposed. Of the remainder, 14 gave vague responses expressing concern of possible war, 7 suggested making temporary concessions and two advised that they would simply go along with whatever was decided.[19] The only universal recommendation was that steps be taken immediately to bolster Japan's coastal defenses. Fortifications were hurriedly built close to current day Odaiba in order to protect Edo from a subsequent American naval incursion.
Second visit to Japan, 1854
Although he had told the Japanese that he would return the following year, Perry soon learned that Russian admiral
By the time of Perry's return, the Tokugawa shogunate had decided to accept virtually all the demands in Fillmore's letter. However, negotiators procrastinated for weeks over the site for negotiations, with Perry insisting on Edo, and the Japanese offering various other locations. Perry eventually lost his temper and threatened to bring 100 ships (more than the actual size of the US Navy at the time) within 20 days to war on Japan. Both sides eventually compromised on the tiny village of Yokohama, where a purpose-built hall was erected. Perry landed on 8 March with 500 sailors and Marines in 27 ships' boats, with three bands playing "The Star-Spangled Banner."[21]
Three weeks of negotiation ensued, accompanied by diplomatic gestures such as the exchange of state gifts. The Americans presented the Japanese with a miniature steam locomotive, a telegraph apparatus, various agricultural tools, and small arms, as well as one hundred gallons of whiskey, clocks, stoves, and books about the United States. The Japanese responded with gold-lacquered furniture and boxes, bronze ornaments, silk and brocade garments, porcelain goblets, and upon learning of Perry's personal hobby, a collection of seashells. Cultural displays were also performed on both sides, with the American sailors aboard the Powhatan putting on a minstrel show, while a number of high-ranking sumo wrestlers performed feats of strength and held exhibition matches.[21]
Finally, on 31 March, Perry signed the Convention of Kanagawa which opened the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American ships, provided for care of shipwrecked sailors, and the establishment of an American consulate in Shimoda.[22] The treaty was signed on the Japanese side by Hayashi Akira. Perry then dispatched the Saratoga home with the signed treaty, while the rest of the squadron went to survey Hakodate, Shimoda and the site of the future consulate. After departing from Shimoda, the fleet returned to the Ryukyu Islands, where Perry swiftly drafted the "Compact between the United States and the Ryukyu Kingdom," which was formally signed on 11 July 1854.
Return to the United States, 1855
After Perry returned to the United States in 1855,
Perry spent his last years preparing for publication of his account of the Japan expedition, announcing its completion on 28 December 1857. Two days later he was detached from his last post, an assignment to the Naval Efficiency Board. He died awaiting further orders on 4 March 1858 in New York City, of rheumatism that had spread to the heart, compounded by complications of gout.[26]
See also
- List of Westerners who visited Japan before 1868
- History of Japan
- Meiji Restoration
- Yokohama Archives of History
- Pacific Overtures
Notes
- ^ W. G. Beasley, The Meiji Restoration, p. 88.
- ^ a b c W. G. Beasley, The Meiji Restoration, p. 78
- ^ "Aulick, John H. (ca. 1791–1873)". www.encyclopediavirginia.org. Retrieved Jul 12, 2020.
- ^ "Aulick, John H. (ca. 1791–1873)". www.encyclopediavirginia.org. Retrieved Jul 12, 2020.
- ^ Sewell, pp. xxxiv–xxxv, xlix, lvi.
- ^ English Wikipedia on Preble Logbook
- ^ Sewall, p. xxxviii.
- ^ J. W. Hall, Japan, p. 207.
- ISBN 978-0-8018-9659-0.
- ISBN 9781317813347.
- ^ ISBN 9781903350133. Retrieved Jul 12, 2020 – via Google Books.
- ISBN 9780813509310. Retrieved 2015-03-09 – via Google Books.
- ISBN 9781443728508– via Google Books.
- ^ "Among the items presented to the Japanese were a white flag and a letter from Perry. The letter attempted to intimidate Japanese officials by explaining that in the event the Japanese elected war rather than negotiation, they could use the white flag to sue for peace, since victory would naturally belong to the Americans"Matthew Calbraith Perry: antebellum sailor and diplomat by John H. Schroeder p. 286 Note 44
- ^ The economic aspects of the history of the civilization of Japan Yosaburō Takekoshi pp. 285–286 [1]
- ^ "Perry Ceremony Today; Japanese and U. S. Officials to Mark 100th Anniversary". The New York Times, July 14, 1953
- ^ Sewall, pp. 183–195.
- ^ J. W. Hall, Japan, p. 211.
- ^ W. G. Beasley, The Meiji Restoration, s. 90–95.
- ^ Hawks, p. 401
- ^ a b Hawks, p. 431, 438
- ^ Sewall, pp. 243–264.
- ISBN 978-1-59114-054-2.
- ^ Sewall, p. lxxxvii.
- ^ "Commodore Perry's Expedition to Japan". Ben Griffiths 2005. Retrieved September 12, 2009.
- ^ Morison, Samuel Eliot. (1967). 'Old Bruin' Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry p. 431.
References
- Arnold, Bruce Makoto (2005). Diplomacy Far Removed: A Reinterpretation of the U.S. Decision to Open Diplomatic Relations with Japan (Thesis). University of Arizona.
- Dupree, A. Hunter, Science vs. the Military: Dr. James Morrow and the Perry Expedition, The Pacific Historical Review, vol. 22, no. 1, (1953), pp. 29–37.
- Hawks, Francis. (1856). Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan Performed in the Years 1852, 1853 and 1854 under the Command of Commodore M.C. Perry, United States Navy, Washington: A.O.P. Nicholson by order of Congress, 1856; originally published in Senate Executive Documents, No. 34 of 33rd Congress, 2nd Session.
- Houchins, Chang-su. (1995). Artifacts of diplomacy: Smithsonian collections from Commodore Matthew Perry's Japan Expedition (1853–1854). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
- Morison, Samuel Eliot. (1967). Old Bruin: Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry, 1796–1858. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.
- Morrow, James, and Allan B. Cole. (1947). A Scientist with Perry in Japan : the Journal of Dr. James Morrow. Edited by Allan B. Cole. Chapel Hill: the University of North Carolina Press.
- Schroeder, John. (2001). Matthew Calbraith Perry. Naval Institute Press.
- Sewall, John S. (1905). The Logbook of the Captain's Clerk: Adventures in the China Seas, Bangor, Maine: Chas H. Glass & Co. [reprint by Chicago: R.R. Donnelly & Sons, 1995] ISBN 054820912X.
Further reading
- Clark, Paul Hendrix. The Perry Expedition and the "Opening of Japan to the West," 1853–1873: A Short History with Documents (Hackett, 2020) online.
- Fullilove, Courtney. "Gift and Gunboat: Meanings of Exchange in the Perry Expedition." Diplomatic History 42.1 (2018): 90–108.
- Wittner, David G. Commodore Matthew Perry and the Perry expedition to Japan (The Rosen Publishing Group, 2004).
Primary sources
- Hones, Sheila, and Yasuo Endo. "History, distance and text: narratives of the 1853–1854 Perry expedition to Japan." Journal of Historical Geography 32.3 (2006): 563–578.
- Macleod, Julia H., et al. "Three Letters Relating to the Perry Expedition to Japan." Huntington Library Quarterly (1943): 228–237. online
- Perry, Matthew Calbraith, and Robert Tomes. The Americans in Japan: an abridgment of the Government narrative of the US expedition to Japan, under Commodore Perry (D. Appleton & Company, 1857) online.
- Williams, Samuel Wells. A journal of the Perry Expedition to Japan (1853–1854) (Kelly & Walsh, 1910). online
External links
- Media related to Perry Expedition at Wikimedia Commons
- Perry Visits Japan: A Visual History