Peru

Coordinates: 10°S 76°W / 10°S 76°W / -10; -76
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Republic of Peru
República del Perú (Spanish)
Co-official names[a]
Motto: 
"Firme y feliz por la unión" (Spanish)
"Firm and Happy for the Union"
Anthem: 
"Himno Nacional del Perú" (Spanish)
"National Anthem of Peru"
March: 
"Marcha de Banderas" (Spanish)
"March of Flags"
National seal
Gran Sello del Estado (Spanish)
Great Seal of the State
Location of Peru (dark green)
Location of Peru (dark green)
Capital
and largest city
Lima
12°2.6′S 77°1.7′W / 12.0433°S 77.0283°W / -12.0433; -77.0283
Official languagesSpanish
Co-official languages[b]
Ethnic groups
(2017[c])
Religion
(2017[d])[1]
  • 5.1%
    Prime Minister
Gustavo Adrianzén
Alejandro Soto Reyes
Legislature
Spain
• Declared
28 July 1821
9 December 1824
• Recognized
14 August 1879
Area
• Total
1,285,216[4][5] km2 (496,225 sq mi) (19th)
• Water (%)
0.41
Population
• 2023 estimate
34,352,720[6] (45th)
• Density
23/km2 (59.6/sq mi) (197th)
GDP (PPP)2023 estimate
• Total
Increase $548.465 billion[7] (45th)
• Per capita
Increase $15,893[7] (96th)
GDP (nominal)2023 estimate
• Total
Increase $264.636 billion[7] (51st)
• Per capita
Increase $7,668[7] (88th)
Gini (2021)Positive decrease 40.2[8]
medium
HDI (2022)Increase 0.762[9]
high (87th)
CurrencyPeruvian sol (PEN)
Time zoneUTC−5 (PET)
Date formatdd/mm/yyyy (CE)
Driving sideright
Calling code+51
ISO 3166 codePE
Internet TLD.pe

Peru,[e] officially the Republic of Peru,[f] is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. Peru is a megadiverse country with habitats ranging from the arid plains of the Pacific coastal region in the west to the peaks of the Andes mountains extending from the north to the southeast of the country to the tropical Amazon basin rainforest in the east with the Amazon River.[11] Peru has a population of over 32 million, and its capital and largest city is Lima. At 1,285,216 km2 (496,225 sq mi), Peru is the 19th largest country in the world, and the third largest in South America.

Caral-Supe civilization (the earliest civilization in the Americas and considered one of the cradles of civilization), the Nazca culture, the Wari and Tiwanaku empires, the Kingdom of Cusco, and the Inca Empire, the largest known state in the pre-Columbian Americas. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and Charles V established a viceroyalty with the official name of the Kingdom of Peru that encompassed most of its South American territories, with its capital in Lima. [12] Higher education started in the Americas with the official establishment of the National University of San Marcos
in Lima in 1551.

Peru formally proclaimed independence from Spain in 1821, following the military campaigns of

political crisis instigated by Congress and the COVID-19 pandemic, precipitating the period of unrest beginning in 2022.[17]

The

manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, along with other growing sectors such as telecommunications and biotechnology.[18] The country forms part of The Pacific Pumas, a political and economic grouping of countries along Latin America's Pacific coast that share common trends of positive growth, stable macroeconomic foundations, improved governance and an openness to global integration. Peru ranks high in social freedom;[19] it is an active member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, the Pacific Alliance, the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership and the World Trade Organization; and is considered as a middle power.[20]

Peru has a population that includes Mestizos, Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechuan languages, Aymara, or other Indigenous languages. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music.

Etymology

The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a local ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama City, in the early 16th century.[21] Spanish conquistadors, who arrived in 1522, believed this was the southernmost part of the New World.[22] When Francisco Pizarro invaded the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú.[23]

An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, son of an Inca princess and a conquistador. He said the name Birú was that of a common Amerindian who was happened upon by the crew of a ship on an exploratory mission for governor Pedro Arias Dávila and went on to relate more instances of misunderstandings due to the lack of a common language.[24]

The Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru.[25] In 1561, the rebel Lope de Aguirre declared himself the "Prince" of an independent Peru, which was cut short by his arrest and execution. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, which became the Peruvian Republic from its independence until 1979, when it adopted its current name of Republic of Peru.[26]

History

Prehistory and Pre-Columbian Peru

Caral/Norte Chico
pyramid in the arid Supe Valley

The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 12,500

Caral/Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE.[29] These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal and Andean regions throughout Peru. The Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BCE[30] along what is now Peru's Pacific coast was an example of early pre-Inca culture
.

Moche earrings depicting warriors, made of turquoise and gold (1–800 CE)

The

Chimu and Moche
.

The Moche, who reached their apogee in the first millennium CE, were renowned for their irrigation system which fertilized their arid terrain, their sophisticated ceramic pottery, their lofty buildings, and clever metalwork.[32] The Chimu were the great city builders of pre-Inca civilization; as a loose confederation of walled cities scattered along the coast of northern Peru, the Chimu flourished from about 1140 to 1450.[33] Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo.[33] In the highlands, both the Tiahuanaco culture, near Lake Titicaca in both Peru and Bolivia,[34] and the Wari culture, near the present-day city of Ayacucho, developed large urban settlements and wide-ranging state systems between 500 and 1000 CE.[35]

The citadel of Machu Picchu, an iconic symbol of pre-Columbian Peru

In the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in the pre-Columbian Americas with their capital in Cusco.[36] The Incas of Cusco originally represented one of the small and relatively minor ethnic groups, the Quechuas. Gradually, as early as the thirteenth century, they began to expand and incorporate their neighbors. Inca expansion was slow until about the middle of the fifteenth century, when the pace of conquest began to accelerate, particularly under the rule of the emperor Pachacuti.[37] Under his rule and that of his son, Topa Inca Yupanqui, the Incas came to control most of the Andean region, with a population of 9 to 16 million inhabitants under their rule. Pachacuti also promulgated a comprehensive code of laws to govern his far-flung empire, while consolidating his absolute temporal and spiritual authority as the God of the Sun who ruled from a magnificently rebuilt Cusco.[38] From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean mountain ranges, from southern Colombia to northern Chile, between the Pacific Ocean in the west and the Amazon rainforest in the east. The official language of the empire was Quechua,[39] although hundreds of local languages and dialects were spoken. The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu which can be translated as "The Four Regions" or "The Four United Provinces." Many local forms of worship persisted in the empire, most of them concerning local sacred Huacas, but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of Inti, the sun god and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that of Pachamama.[40] The Incas considered their King, the Sapa Inca, to be the "child of the sun."[41]

Conquest and colonial period

One of the main events in the conquest of Peru was the death of Atahualpa, the last Sapa Inca, executed by the Spaniards on 29 August 1533

Atahualpa (also Atahuallpa), the last

Huancas, Cañaris and Chachapoyas as Indian auxiliaries) led by Francisco Pizarro defeated and captured the Inca Emperor Atahualpa in the Battle of Cajamarca. [43] After years of preliminary exploration and military conflicts, it was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory and colonization of the region known as the Viceroyalty of Peru with its capital at Lima, which was then known as "La Ciudad de los Reyes" (The City of Kings). The conquest of Peru led to spin-off campaigns throughout the viceroyalty as well as expeditions towards the Amazon Basin as in the case of Spanish efforts to quell Amerindian resistance. The last Inca resistance was suppressed when the Spaniards annihilated the Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba
in 1572.

Cusco

The Indigenous population dramatically collapsed overwhelmingly due to epidemic diseases introduced by the Spanish as well as exploitation and socio-economic change.

Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera, governor of Panama was also responsible for settling Zamboanga City in the Philippines by employing Peruvian soldiers and colonists.[48] African slaves were added to the labor population to expand the workforce. The expansion of a colonial administrative apparatus and bureaucracy paralleled the economic reorganization. With the conquest started the spread of Christianity in South America; most people were forcefully converted to Catholicism, with Spanish clerics believing like Puritan divines of English colonies later that the Native Peoples "had been corrupted by the Devil, who was working "through them to frustrate" their foundations.[49] It only took a generation to convert the population. They built churches in every city and replaced some of the Inca temples with churches, such as the Coricancha in the city of Cusco. The church employed the Inquisition, making use of torture to ensure that newly converted Catholics did not stray to other religions or beliefs, and monastery schools, educating girls, especially of the Inca nobility and upper class, "until they were old enough either to profess [to become a nun] or to leave the monastery and assume the role ('estado') in the Christian society that their fathers planned to erect" in Peru.[50] Peruvian Catholicism follows the syncretism found in many Latin American countries, in which religious native rituals have been integrated with Christian celebrations.[51] In this endeavor, the church came to play an important role in the acculturation
of the Natives, drawing them into the cultural orbit of the Spanish settlers.

Colonial Arequipa

By the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income.[52] In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms, a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty.[53] The new laws provoked Túpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts, all of which were suppressed.[54] As a result of these and other changes, the Spaniards and their creole successors came to monopolize control over the land, seizing many of the best lands abandoned by the massive native depopulation. However, the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. The Treaty of Tordesillas was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal. The need to ease communication and trade with Spain led to the split of the viceroyalty and the creation of new viceroyalties of New Granada and Rio de la Plata at the expense of the territories that formed the Viceroyalty of Peru; this reduced the power, prominence and importance of Lima as the viceroyal capital and shifted the lucrative Andean trade to Buenos Aires and Bogotá, while the fall of the mining and textile production accelerated the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru.

Juan Santos and his supporters confronting Franciscan priests.

Eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. These movements led to the formation of the majority of modern-day countries of South America in the territories that at one point or another had constituted the Viceroyalty of Peru.[55] The conquest and colony brought a mix of cultures and ethnicities that did not exist before the Spanish conquered the Peruvian territory. Even though many of the Inca traditions were lost or diluted, new customs, traditions and knowledge were added, creating a rich mixed Peruvian culture.[51] Two of the most important Indigenous rebellions against the Spanish were that of Juan Santos Atahualpa in 1742, and Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II in 1780 around the highlands near Cuzco.[56]

Independence

The Battle of Ayacucho was decisive in ensuring Peruvian independence.

In the early 19th century, while most South American nations were swept by

independence was achieved only after the occupation by military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar
.

The economic crises, the loss of power of Spain in Europe, the war of independence in North America, and Native uprisings all contributed to a favorable climate to the development of emancipation ideas among the Criollo population in South America. However, the Criollo oligarchy in Peru enjoyed privileges and remained loyal to the Spanish Crown. The liberation movement started in Argentina where autonomous juntas were created as a result of the loss of authority of the Spanish government over its colonies.

After fighting for the independence of the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata, José de San Martín created the Army of the Andes and crossed the Andes in 21 days. Once in Chile, he joined forces with Chilean army General Bernardo O'Higgins and liberated the country in the battles of Chacabuco and Maipú in 1818.[57] On 7 September 1820, a fleet of eight warships arrived in the port of Paracas under the command of General José de San Martín and Thomas Cochrane, who was serving in the Chilean Navy. Immediately on 26 October, they took control of the town of Pisco. San Martín settled in Huacho on 12 November, where he established his headquarters while Cochrane sailed north and blockaded the port of Callao in Lima. At the same time in the north, Guayaquil was occupied by rebel forces under the command of Gregorio Escobedo. Because Peru was the stronghold of the Spanish government in South America, San Martín's strategy to liberate Peru was to use diplomacy. He sent representatives to Lima urging the Viceroy that Peru be granted independence, however, all negotiations proved unsuccessful.

San Martín proclaiming the independence of Peru. Painting by Juan Lepiani.

The Viceroy of Peru, Joaquín de la Pazuela named José de la Serna commander-in-chief of the loyalist army to protect Lima from the threatened invasion by San Martín. On 29 January, de la Serna organized a coup against de la Pazuela, which was recognized by Spain and he was named Viceroy of Peru. This internal power struggle contributed to the success of the liberating army. To avoid a military confrontation, San Martín met the newly appointed viceroy, José de la Serna, and proposed to create a constitutional monarchy, a proposal that was turned down. De la Serna abandoned the city, and on 12 July 1821, San Martín occupied Lima and declared Peruvian independence on 28 July 1821. He created the first Peruvian flag. Upper Peru (present-day Bolivia) remained as a Spanish stronghold until the army of Simón Bolívar liberated it three years later. José de San Martín was declared Protector of Peru. Peruvian national identity was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for a Latin American Confederation floundered and a union with Bolivia proved ephemeral.[58]

Simón Bolívar launched his campaign from the north, liberating the Viceroyalty of New Granada in the Battles of Carabobo in 1821 and Pichincha a year later. In July 1822, Bolívar and San Martín gathered in the Guayaquil Conference. Bolívar was left in charge of fully liberating Peru while San Martín retired from politics after the first parliament was assembled. The newly founded Peruvian Congress named Bolívar dictator of Peru, giving him the power to organize the military.

With the help of Antonio José de Sucre, they defeated the larger Spanish army in the Battle of Junín on 6 August 1824 and the decisive Battle of Ayacucho on 9 December of the same year, consolidating the independence of Peru and Upper Peru. Upper Peru was later established as Bolivia. During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.[59]

19th century

The Battle of Angamos, during the War of the Pacific

From the 1840s to the 1860s, Peru enjoyed a period of stability under the presidency of Ramón Castilla, through increased state revenues from guano exports.[60] However, by the 1870s, these resources had been depleted, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise.[61] Peru embarked on a railroad-building program that helped but also bankrupted the country.

In 1879, Peru entered the War of the Pacific which lasted until 1884. Bolivia invoked its alliance with Peru against Chile. The Peruvian Government tried to mediate the dispute by sending a diplomatic team to negotiate with the Chilean government, but the committee concluded that war was inevitable. Chile declared war on 5 April 1879. Almost five years of war ended with the loss of the department of Tarapacá and the provinces of Tacna and Arica, in the Atacama region. Two outstanding military leaders throughout the war were Francisco Bolognesi and Miguel Grau. Originally Chile committed to a referendum for the cities of Arica and Tacna to be held years later, to self determine their national affiliation. However, Chile refused to apply the Treaty, and neither of the countries could determine the statutory framework. After the War of the Pacific, an extraordinary effort of rebuilding began. The government started to initiate a number of social and economic reforms to recover from the damage of the war. Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s.

20th century

The signing of the Rio Protocol in January 1942

Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under the

year-long war with Colombia over a territorial dispute involving the Amazonas Department and its capital Leticia
.

Later, in 1941, Peru and Ecuador fought the

Fernando Belaúnde Terry
who assumed presidency until 1968. Belaúnde was recognized for his commitment to the democratic process.

On 3 October 1968, another

Francisco Morales Bermúdez Cerruti seized power and broke with the policies of his predecessor. His regime occasionally participated in Operation Condor in collaboration with other American military dictatorships.[63][64]

Peru engaged in a two week long conflict with Ecuador during the

great havoc throughout the country.[66][67] The Shining Path had appeared in the universities in the 1970s. These students, many of them from peasant backgrounds, then returned to their communities and organized local party committees. The abandonment by the state of certain rural regions favored the establishment of the party. In June 1979, demonstrations for free education were severely repressed by the army: 18 people were killed according to the official report, but non-governmental estimates put the death toll at several dozen. This event led to a radicalization of political protests in the countryside and eventually to the outbreak of armed struggle. After the beginning of the armed struggle, the new recruits of the Shining Path were generally peasants with little political background, rather than truly political militants.[68]

The Peruvian armed forces grew frustrated with the inability of the García administration to handle the nation's crises and drafted

neoliberal economy controlled by a military junta in Peru – as an effort to overthrow his government.[69][70][71][72] Alberto Fujimori assumed the presidency in 1990 and according to Rospigliosi, the head of the National Intelligence Service (SIN) General Edwin "Cucharita" Díaz and Vladimiro Montesinos played a key role with making President Fujimori abide by the military's demands while "an understanding was established between Fujimori, Montesinos and some of the military officers" involved in Plan Verde prior to Fujimori's inauguration.[73][74] Fujimori would go on to adopt many of the policies outlined in Plan Verde.[72][74] Fujimori's policies, prescribed by Hernando de Soto, led to the immediate suffering of poor Peruvians who saw unregulated prices increase rapidly, with those living in poverty seeing prices increase so much that they could no longer afford food.[75] De Soto advocated for the collapse of Peru's society, with the economist saying that a civil crisis was necessary to support the policies of Fujimori.[76] These drastic measures caused inflation to drop from 7,650% in 1990 to 139% in 1991 and 57% in 1992.[66][67] The description of Fujimori's economic achievements as a "Peruvian miracle" was exaggerated and inequality persisted following his presidency.[77]

Due to his controversial governance, Fujimori faced opposition to his reform efforts and utilized coup proposals from Plan Verde, dissolving Congress, suspending the judiciary, arresting several opposition leaders and assuming full powers in the

forced sterilization of at least 300,000 poor and indigenous women.[73][81][82]

In early 1995, once again Peru and Ecuador clashed in the Cenepa War, but in 1998 the governments of both nations signed a peace treaty that clearly demarcated the international boundary between them. In November 2000, Fujimori resigned from office and went into a self-imposed exile, initially avoiding prosecution for human rights violations and corruption charges by the new Peruvian authorities.[83]

21st century

Into the new century, Peru tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth,

sentenced to 25 years in prison for his role in killings and kidnappings by the Grupo Colina death squad during his government's battle against leftist guerrillas in the 1990s.[88]

During the presidencies of

Vizcara's removal from the presidency by Congress.[98] Widely seen as a coup by Congress, its head, the newly seated President Manuel Merino, faced protests across the country, and after five days, Merino resigned from the presidency.[99] Merino was replaced by President Francisco Sagasti, who led a provisional, centrist government, and enforced many of Vizcarra's former policies.[100] Elections were held on 11 April 2021, and Pedro Castillo of the Free Peru party won the first round, followed closely by Keiko Fujimori, with right-wing parties allied with Fujimori maintaining positions in Congress.[101]

dissolve the opposition-controlled legislature and create an "exceptional emergency government." In response, Congress quickly held an emergency session on the same day, during which it voted 101–6 (with 10 abstentions) to remove Castillo from office and replace him with Vice President Dina Boluarte. She became the country's first female president.[104][105] Castillo was arrested after trying to flee to the Mexican embassy and was charged with the crime of rebellion.[106]

The Boluarte government proved unpopular as she allied herself with the right-wing Congress and the military, betraying her constituents.

Government and politics

Peru is a

semi-presidential republic with a multi-party system.[2][3] The country has maintained a liberal democratic system under its 1993 Constitution, which replaced a constitution that leaned the government to a federation to authorize more power to the president.[109][110] It is also a unitary republic, in which the central government holds the most power and can create administrative divisions. The Peruvian system of government combines elements derived from the political systems of the United States (a written constitution, an autonomous Supreme court, and a presidential system) and the People's Republic of China (a unicameral congress, a premier and ministry system).[111]

The Peruvian government is separated into three branches:

Palacio de Gobierno, in Lima

Under its constitution, the president of Peru is both

In the Congress of Peru, there are 130 Members of Congress from 25

removed from office in 2020 and Pedro Castillo was removed in 2022.[123] Following a ruling in February 2023 by the Constitutional Court of Peru, whose members are elected by Congress, judicial oversight of the legislative body was also removed by the court, essentially giving Congress absolute control of Peru's government.[124][125]

The Congress of Peru
, in Lima

Peru's

directly elected by constituents in respective districts through proportional voting. The president is elected in a general election, along with the vice president, through a majority in a two-round system.[127] Elections are observed and organized by the National Jury of Elections, National Office of Electoral Processes, and the National Registry of Identification and Civil Status.[128]

Peru uses a multi-party system for congressional and general elections. Major groups that have formed governments, both on a federal and legislative level, are parties that have historically adopted economic liberalism, progressivism, right-wing populism (specifically Fujimorism), nationalism, and reformism.[129]

The most recent general election was held on 11 April 2021 and resulted in Free Peru winning the most seats in Congress, although it fell well short of a majority.[130] A presidential runoff between Pedro Castillo and Keiko Fujimori took place on 5 June 2021 and resulted in the victory of Castillo.[131]

Allegations of corruption in politics

Exceptionally many presidents of Peru have been ousted from office or imprisoned on allegations of corruption from the 1990s into the 21st century. Alberto Fujimori is serving a 25-year sentence in prison for commanding death squads that killed civilians in a counterinsurgency campaign during his tenure (1990–2000). He was later also found guilty of corruption. Former president Alan García (1985–1990 and 2006–2011) killed himself in April 2019 when Peruvian police arrived to arrest him over allegations he participated in Odebrecht bribery scheme. Former president Alejandro Toledo is accused of allegedly receiving bribe from Brazilian construction firm Odebrecht during his government (2001–2006). Former president Ollanta Humala (2011–2016) is also under investigation for allegedly receiving bribe from Odebrecht during his presidential election campaign. Humala's successor Pedro Pablo Kuczynski (2016–2018) remains under house arrest while prosecutors investigate him for favoring contracts with Odebrecht. Former president Martín Vizcarra (2018–2020) was controversially ousted by Congress after media reports alleged he had received bribes while he was a regional governor years earlier.[132][133]

Corruption is also widespread throughout Congress as legislators use their office for parliamentary immunity and other benefits,[134] with the large majority of Peruvians disapproving of Congress and its behavior.[135]

Administrative divisions

A map of Peru's region and departments

Peru is divided into 26 units:

Constitutional Province of Callao and the Province of Lima (LIM) – which is independent of any region and serves as the country's capital.[136] Under the constitution, the 24 departments plus Callao Province have an elected "regional"[g] government composed of the regional governor and the regional council.[137][138]

The governor constitutes the executive body, proposes budgets, and creates decrees, resolutions, and regional programs.[139] The Regional Council, the region's legislative body, debates and votes on budgets, supervises regional officials, and can vote to remove the governor, deputy governor, or any member of the council from office. The regional governor and the Regional Council serve a term of four years, without immediate reelection. These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.[140][141]

Provinces, such as the province of Lima, are administered by a municipal council, headed by a mayor.[142] The goal of devolving power to regional and municipal governments was among others to improve popular participation. NGOs played an important role in the decentralization process and still influence local politics.[143][144]

Some areas of Peru are defined as metropolitan areas which overlap district areas. The largest of them, the Lima metropolitan area, is the seventh-largest metropolis in the Americas.

Foreign relations


The headquarters of the Andean Community is located in Lima.

Over recent decades, Peru's foreign relations has historically been dominated by close ties with the United States and Asia,[145] particularly through the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the World Trade Organization, the Pacific Alliance, Mercosur, and the Organization of American States (OAS).[146][147] Peru is an active member of several

Andean Community of Nations. It is also a member of international organizations such as the OAS and the United Nations.[148] Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, a celebrated Peruvian diplomat, served as United Nations Secretary General
from 1981 to 1991.

Peru has planned to be fully integrated into the

European Union Free Trade Agreement, free trade agreements with Japan, and many others.[151][152]

Peru maintains an integrated relationship with other South American nations, and is a member of various South American intergovernmental agreements, more recently the

Peru v Chile international court resolution and the Chilean-Peruvian maritime dispute, but the two countries have agreed to work in improving relations.[153]

Additionally, Peru has participated in taking a leading role in addressing the crisis in Venezuela through the establishment of the Lima Group.[154]

Military and law enforcement

Peruvian marines in the VRAEM in 2019

Peru has the fourth largest military in Latin America. Peru's armed forces – the Armed Forces of Peru – comprise the Peruvian Navy (MGP), the Peruvian Army (EP), and the Peruvian Air Force (FAP), in total numbering 392,660 personnel (including 120,660 regulars and 272,000 reservists) as of 2020.[155] Their primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.[156]

Their functions are separated by branch:

  • The Peruvian Army is made up of the Chief of Staff, two Control Bodies, two Support Bodies, five Military Regions and six Command Rooms.
  • The
    air defense. It also participates in social support campaigns for hard-to-reach populations, organizes air bridges during disasters, and participates in international peace missions. Its four major air bases are located in the cities of Piura, Callao, Arequipa and Iquitos
    .
  • The Peruvian Navy is in charge of the country's maritime, river, and lake defense. It is made up of 26,000 sailors. Personnel are divided into three levels: superior personnel, junior personnel and seafarers.

The military is governed by both the

anti-terrorist force have produced markedly military characteristics, giving it the appearance of a virtual fourth military service with significant land, sea and air capabilities and approximately 140,000 personnel. The Peruvian armed forces report through the Ministry of Defense, while the National Police of Peru reports through the Ministry of Interior.[159][156]

Since the end of the

crisis in Peru in 2000, the federal government has significantly reduced annual spending in defense.[160] In the 2016–2017 budget, defense spending has constituted 1.1% of GDP ($2.3 billion), the second lowest spending relative to GDP in South America following Argentina.[161] More recently, the Armed Forces of Peru have been used in civil defense. In 2020, Peru used its military personnel and even reservists to enforce the strict quarantine measures placed during the COVID-19 pandemic.[162]

Geography

Peru is located on the central western coast of South America facing the Pacific Ocean. It lies wholly in the Southern Hemisphere, its northernmost extreme reaching to 1.8 minutes of latitude or about 3.3 kilometres (2.1 mi) south of the equator, covers 1,285,216 km2 (496,225 sq mi) of western South America. It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The Andes mountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean; they define the three regions traditionally used to describe the country geographically.[163]

The costa (coast), to the west, is a narrow, largely arid plain except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) Huascarán.[164] The third region is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60 percent of the country's area is located within this region.[165] The country has fifty-four hydrographic basins, fifty-two of which are small coastal basins that discharge their waters into the Pacific Ocean. The final two are the endorheic basin of Lake Titicaca, and the Amazon basin, which empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Both are delimited by the Andes mountain range. The Amazon basin is particularly noteworthy as it is the source of the Amazon River, which at 6872 km, is the longest river in the world, and covers 75% of Peruvian territory. Peru contains 4% of the planet's freshwater.

Most Peruvian rivers originate in the peaks of the Andes and drain into one of three

Yavarí, the Huallaga, the Urubamba, the Mantaro, and the Amazon.[167]

The largest lake in Peru, Lake Titicaca between Peru and Bolivia high in the Andes, is also the largest of South America.[168] The largest reservoirs, all in the coastal region of Peru, are the Poechos, Tinajones, San Lorenzo, and El Fraile reservoirs.[169]

Climate

The combination of tropical latitude, mountain ranges, topography variations, and two ocean currents (

Peruvian Amazon is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.[172]

Wildlife

Andean cock-of-the-rock, Peru's national bird

Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003, 5,855 of them

megadiverse
countries.

Peru has over 1,800

anchovies, tuna, crustaceans, and shellfish, and is home to many sharks, sperm whales, and whales.[176] The invertebrate fauna is far less inventoried; at least beetles (Coleoptera) have been surveyed in the "Beetles of Peru" project, led by Caroline S. Chaboo, University of Nebraska, USA and this revealved more 12,000 documented and many new species for Peru.[177]

Peru also has an equally diverse

cacti, apart from hilly fog oases and river valleys that contain unique plant life.[178]
The Highlands above the tree-line known as
bromeliad – the spectacular Puya raimondii
.

The cloud-forest slopes of the Andes sustain moss, orchids, and bromeliads, and the Amazon rainforest is known for its variety of trees and canopy plants.[176] Peru had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.86/10, ranking it 14th globally out of 172 countries.[179]

Economy

The economy of Peru is the 48th largest in the world (ranked by

distribution of income have proven elusive.[185] According to 2015 data, 19.3% of its total population is poor, including 9% that lives in extreme poverty.[186] Inflation in 2012 was the lowest in Latin America at only 1.8%, but increased in 2013 as oil and commodity prices rose; as of 2014 it stands at 2.5%.[187] and 8,6 in 2023.[188] The unemployment rate has fallen steadily in recent years,[clarify] and as of 2012
stands at 3.6%.

Peruvian economic policy has varied widely over the past decades.[

Despite these results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when the liberalizing government of Alberto Fujimori ended price controls, protectionism, restrictions on foreign direct investment, and most state ownership of companies.[190]

As of 2010

free trade agreement with the United States signed on 12 April 2006.[193] Peru's main exports were copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners were the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.[194] Peru was ranked 76th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.[195]

Informal workers represent, in 2019, 70% of the labour market according to the National Institute of Statistics and Informatics (INEI). In 2016, almost three million children and adolescents worked in the informal sector.[196]

Mining

The country is heavily dependent on mining for the export of raw materials, which represent 60% of exports: in 2019, the country was the second world producer of copper,[197] silver[198] and zinc,[199] eighth world producer of gold,[200] third world producer of lead,[201] the world's fourth largest producer of tin,[202] the fifth world's largest producer of boron[203] and the world's fourth largest producer of molybdenum.[204] – not to mention gas and of oil. Little industrialized, Peru suffers from the international variation of commodity prices.[205]

Agriculture

Peru is the world's largest producer of

chicken meat in the world.[206]

According to a report by the UN

food insecure (16.6 million people), and more than 20% (6.8 million people), are severely food insecure: they go without food for a whole day, or even several days.[207][208]

The director of FAO Peru stresses that "this is the great paradox of a country that has enough food for its population. Peru is a net producer of food and one of the major agro-exporting powers in the region. Food insecurity is due to high

drug trafficking on their land and mining activity that exhausts the soil."[207][208]

Industry

The World Bank lists the top producing countries each year, based on the total value of production. By the 2019 list, Peru has the 50th most valuable industry in the world ($28.7 billion).[209]

In 2016 Peru was the world's largest supplier of

fishmeal.[210]

Infrastructure

Transport

Jorge Chávez International Airport, in Callao

Peru's road network in 2021 consisted of 175,589 km (109,106 mi) of highways, with 29,579 km (18,380 mi) paved.

Pan American Highway and Interoceanic Highway. In 2016, the country had 827 km (514 mi) of duplicated highways, and was investing in more duplications: the plan was to have 2,634 km (1,637 mi) in 2026.[212] The country's rail network is small: in 2018, the country only had 1,939 km (1,205 mi) of railways.[213]

Peru has important international airports such as Lima, Cuzco and Arequipa. The 10 busiest airports in South America in 2017 were: São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago (Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasília (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Buenos Aires-Aeroparque (Argentina), Buenos Aires-Ezeiza (Argentina) and Minas Gerais (Brazil).[214]

Peru has important ports in Callao, Ilo and Matarani. The 15 most active ports in South America in 2018 were: Port of Santos (Brazil), Port of Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil (Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile), Buenaventura (Colombia), Itajaí (Brazil), Valparaíso (Chile), Montevideo (Uruguay), Paranaguá (Brazil), Rio Grande (Brazil), São Francisco do Sul (Brazil), Manaus (Brazil) and Coronel (Chile).[215]

Energy

Peruvian electricity production totalled 5.1 TWh in the month of October 2022. Of these, 52% came from hydroelectric plants, 38.3% from thermoelectric plants (which use oil, gas and coal) and 9.7% of renewable energy plants like: wind, solar, and others.[216]

In 2021, Peru had, in terms of installed renewable electricity, 5,490 MW in hydropower (34th largest in the world), 409 MW in wind power (49th largest in the world), 336 MW in solar power (62nd largest in the world), and 185 MW in biomass.[217]

Healthcare

Peru has a decentralized healthcare system that consists of a combination of governmental and non-governmental coverage. Health care is covered by the Ministry of Health, EsSalud, the Armed Forces (FFAA), and National Police (PNP), as well as private insurance companies. The Ministry of Health insures 60% of the population and EsSalud covers another 30%. The remaining population in Peru is insured by a combination of the FFAA, PNP, and private insurance companies.[218]

Demographics

Population age pyramid of Peru in 2020.

With about 31.2 million inhabitants in 2017, Peru is the fourth most populous country in South America.[219] The demographic growth rate of Peru declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; with the population being expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.[220] According to the 1940 Peruvian census, Peru had a population of seven million residents.[221]

As of 2017, 79.3% lived in urban areas and 20.7% in rural areas.

2007 census.[223] There are 15 uncontacted Amerindian tribes in Peru.[224] Peru has a life expectancy of 75.0 years (72.4 for males and 77.7 for females) according to the latest data for the year 2016 from the World Bank.[225]

 
 
Largest cities or towns in Peru
Estimated 2014
Rank Name Region Pop. Rank Name Region Pop.
Lima
Lima
Arequipa
Arequipa
1 Lima
Lima
9,735,587 (Metro pop.) [226] 11 Juliaca
Puno
267,174 Trujillo
Trujillo
Chiclayo
Chiclayo
2 Arequipa
Arequipa
1,008,029 (Metro pop.) 12 Ica
Ica
241,903
3 Trujillo
La Libertad
935,147 (Metro pop.) 13 Cajamarca
Cajamarca
218,775
4 Chiclayo
Lambayeque
801,580 (Metro pop.) 14 Pucallpa
Ucayali
211,631
5 Huancayo
Junín
501,384 15 Sullana
Piura
199,606
6 Iquitos
Loreto
432,476 16 Ayacucho
Ayacucho
177,420
7 Piura
Piura
430,319 17 Chincha Alta
Ica
174,575
8 Cusco
Cusco
420,137 18 Huánuco
Huánuco
172,924
9 Chimbote
Ancash
367,850 19 Tarapoto
San Martín
141,053
10 Tacna
Tacna
288,698 20 Puno
Puno
138,723

Ethnic groups

Ethnic Groups in Peru (2017 Census)[227]
Ethnic Groups percent
Mestizo
60.2%
Quechua
22.3%
White
5.9%
Afro-Peruvian
3.6%
Aymara
2.4%
Other
2.3%
Not Stated
3.3%

Peru is a

The 2017 census for the first time included a question on ethnic self-identification. According to the results, 60.2% of the people identified themselves as

black, 2.4% identified themselves as Aymara, 2.3% identified themselves as other ethnic groups, and 3.3% did not declare their ethnicity.[227]

Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule, mixing widely with each other and with Indigenous peoples. After independence, there was gradual immigration from England, France, Germany, and Italy.[229] Peru freed its black slaves in 1854.[230] Chinese and Japanese arrived in the 1850s as laborers following the end of slavery, and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society.[231]

Language

Casa de Osambela, headquarters of the Academia Peruana de la Lengua (APL) in Lima

According to the Peruvian Constitution of 1993, Peru's official languages are Spanish and, in areas where they predominate, Quechua and other Indigenous languages. Spanish is spoken natively by 82.6% of the population, Quechua by 13.9%, and Aymara by 1.7%, while other languages are spoken by the remaining 1.8%.[232]

Spanish language is used by the government and is the mainstream language of the country, which is used by the media and in educational systems and commerce. Amerindians who live in the Andean highlands speak Quechua and Aymara and are ethnically distinct from the diverse Indigenous groups who live on the eastern side of the Andes and in the tropical lowlands adjacent to the Amazon basin.[233]

Peru's distinct geographical regions are mirrored in a language divide between the coast where Spanish is more predominant over the Amerindian languages, and the more diverse traditional Andean cultures of the mountains and highlands. The Indigenous populations east of the Andes speak various languages and dialects. Some of these groups still adhere to traditional Indigenous languages, while others have been almost completely assimilated into the Spanish language. There has been an increasing and organized effort to teach Quechua in public schools in the areas where Quechua is spoken. In the Peruvian Amazon, numerous Indigenous languages are spoken, including Asháninka, Bora, and Aguaruna.[233]

Religion

Quri Kancha and the Convent of Santo Domingo, in Cusco

Roman Catholicism has been the predominant faith in Peru for centuries, albeit religious practices have a high degree of

Latter-day Saints, and Jehovah's Witnesses, and 5.1% as nonreligious.[235]

Amerindian religious traditions continue to play a major role in the beliefs of Peruvians. Catholic festivities like

Corpus Christi, Holy Week and Christmas sometimes blend with Amerindian traditions. Amerindian festivities from pre-Columbian remain widespread; Inti Raymi
, an ancient Inca festival, is still celebrated, especially in rural communities.

The majority of towns, cities, and villages have their own official church or cathedral and patron saint.

Education

National University of San Marcos, in Lima

Peru's literacy rate is estimated at 92.9% as of 2007; this rate is lower in rural areas (80.3%) than in urban areas (96.3%).[236] Primary and secondary education are compulsory and free in public schools.[180][237]

Peru is home to one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in the New World. The National University of San Marcos, founded on 12 May 1551, during the Viceroyalty of Peru, is the first officially established and the oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas.[citation needed]

Toponyms

Many of the Peruvian

toponyms in the normalized alphabets of the Indigenous languages must progressively be proposed with the aim of standardizing the naming used by the National Geographic Institute (Instituto Geográfico Nacional, IGN). The National Geographic Institute realizes the necessary changes in the official maps of Peru.[238]

Culture

Textile doll (11th century), Chancay culture, Walters Art Museum. Dolls, of reduced size, are frequently found in the tombs of ancient Peru.[239]

Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Iberian and Andean traditions,

Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and made architectural achievements including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque dominated colonial art, though modified by Native traditions.[241]

During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the Cusco School are representative.[242] Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20th century.[243] Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.

Visual Arts

Peruvian art has its origin in the

Andean civilizations. These civilizations arose in the territory of modern Peru before the arrival of the Spanish
. Peruvian art incorporated European elements after the Spanish conquest and continued to evolve throughout the centuries up to the modern day.

Pre-Columbian art

Moche Nariguera depicting the Decapitator, gold with turquoise and chrysocolla inlays. Museo del Oro del Peru, Lima.

Peru's earliest artwork came from the

ceramics
to create a variety of sculptures and relief carvings. These civilizations were also known for their architecture and wood sculptures.

Between the 9th century BCE and the 2nd century CE, the Paracas Cavernas and Paracas Necropolis cultures developed on the south coast of Peru. Paracas Cavernas produced complex polychrome and monochrome ceramics with religious representations. Burials from the Paracas Necropolis also yielded complex textiles, many produced with sophisticated geometric patterns.

The 3rd century BCE saw the flowering of the urban culture,

cultivation in terraces and hydraulic engineering
and produced original ceramics, textiles, pictorial and sculptural works.

Huaca de la Luna, Moche temple that has preserved courtyards and ceremonial plazas of more than 1,500 years old. Located in the city of Trujillo.

Another urban culture, the

Ayacucho. Their centralized town planning was extended to other areas, such as Pachacamac, Cajamarquilla and Wari Willka
.

Between the 9th and 13th centuries CE, the military urban Tiwanaku empire rose by the borders of Lake Titicaca. Centered around a city of the same name in modern-day Bolivia, the Tiwanaku introduced stone architecture and sculpture of a monumental type. These works of architecture and art were made possible by the Tiwanaku's developing bronze, which enabled them to make the necessary tools.

Urban architecture reached a new height between the 14th and 15th centuries in the

La Libertad. The Chimú were skilled goldsmiths and created remarkable works of hydraulic engineering
.

The

Cusco, architectural remains like Sacsayhuamán and Machu Picchu
and stone pavements that united Cusco with the rest of the Inca Empire.

Colonial art

Saint Joseph and the Christ Child, Anonymous, Colonial Cusco Painting School, 17th–18th century

Peruvian sculpture and painting began to define themselves from the

Quechua artists European painting styles. Diego Quispe Tito (1611–1681) was one of the first members of the Cuzco school and Marcos Zapata (1710–1773) was one of the last.[244]

Painting of this time reflected a synthesis of European and Indigenous influences, as is evident in the portrait of prisoner Atahualpa, by D. de Mora or in the canvases of the Italians

Mateo Pérez de Alesio
and Angelino Medoro, the Spaniards Francisco Bejarano and J. de Illescas and the Creole J. Rodriguez.

During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Baroque Style also dominated the field of plastic arts.

Literature

The term Peruvian literature not only refers to literature produced in the independent Republic of Peru, but also to literature produced in the

pre-Columbian period, such as the Quechua, the Aymara and the Chanka
people.

Peruvian literature is rooted in the oral traditions of

Costumbrism and Romanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of Ricardo Palma.[245] The early 20th century's Indigenismo movement was led by such writers as Ciro Alegría[246] and José María Arguedas.[247] César Vallejo wrote modernist and often politically engaged verse. Modern Peruvian literature is recognized thanks to authors such as Nobel laureate Mario Vargas Llosa, a leading member of the Latin American Boom.[248]

Cuisine

Ceviche is a popular lime-marinated seafood dish which originated in Peru.

Because of the Spanish expedition and discovery of America, explorers started the Columbian exchange which included unknown food in the Old World, including potatoes, tomatoes, and maize. Modern Indigenous Peruvian food often includes corn, potatoes, and chilies. There are now more than 3,000 kinds of potatoes grown on Peruvian terrain, according to Peru's Instituto Peruano de la Papa.[249] Modern

anticuchos, ceviche, and pachamanca. Peru's varied climate allows the growth of diverse plants and animals good for cooking.[251]

Peruvian cuisine reflects local practices and ingredients – including influences from the Indigenous population including the

kiwicha, chili peppers, and several roots and tubers have increased in popularity in recent decades, reflecting a revival of interest in Native Peruvian foods and culinary techniques. It is also common to see traditional cuisines being served with a modern flair in towns like Cusco, where tourists come to visit. Chef Gastón Acurio
has become well known for raising awareness of local ingredients.

Music

Marinera Norteña

Peruvian music has

Peruvian folk dances include marinera, tondero, zamacueca, diablada and huayno.[255]

Peruvian music is dominated by the national

Titicaca regions, the charango is used in courtship rituals, symbolically invoking mermaids with the instrument to lure the woman to the male performers. Until the 1960s, the charango was denigrated as an instrument of the rural poor. After the revolution in 1959, which built the Indigenismo movement (1910–1940), the charango was popularized among other performers. Variants include the walaycho, chillador, chinlili, and the larger and lower-tuned charangon
.

While the Spanish guitar is widely played, so too is the Spanish-in-origin

harps
, also of European origin, are also played.

Cinema

While the Peruvian film industry has not been nearly as prolific as that of some other Latin American countries, some Peruvian movies produced enjoyed regional success. Historically, the cinema of Peru

rubber boom
and the intense arrival of foreigners with technology to the city, and thus continued an extensive, unique filmography, with a different style than the films made in the capital, Lima.

Peru also produced the first animated 3-D film in Latin America,

Piratas en el Callao. This film is set in the historical port city of Callao, which during colonial times had to defend itself against attacks by Dutch and British privateers seeking to undercut Spain's trade with its colonies. The film was produced by the Peruvian
company Alpamayo Entertainment, which made a second 3-D film one year later: Dragones: Destino de Fuego.

In February 2006, the film Madeinusa, produced as a joint venture between Peru and Spain and directed by Claudia Llosa, was set in an imaginary Andean village and describes the stagnating life of Madeinusa performed by Magaly Solier and the traumas of post-civil war Peru.

Llosa, who shared elements of

Rotterdam Film Festival. Llosa's second feature, The Milk of Sorrow ("La Teta Asustada"), was nominated for the 82nd Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Picture, the first Peruvian film in the academy's history to be nominated. The Milk of Sorrow
("La Teta Asustada"), won the Golden Bear award at the 2009 Berlinale.

See also

Notes and references

Notes

  1. ^ In Peru, other languages have been officially recognized as legitimate autochthonous languages, which are co-official alongside Spanish in those areas where they predominate.
  2. ^ In those areas where they predominate.
  3. ethnic self-identification
    that was addressed to people aged 12 and over considering elements such as their ancestry, their customs and their family origin to visualize and better understand the cultural reality of the country.
  4. 2017 National Census
    was addressed to people aged 12 and over.
  5. ^ /pəˈr/ pə-ROO; Spanish: Perú [peˈɾu]; Quechua: Piruw [pɪɾʊw];[10] Aymara: Piruw [pɪɾʊw]
  6. ^ Spanish: República del Perú
  7. ^ The government in each department is referred to as "regional" governments despite being departments.

Citations

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  3. ^ . Only in Latin America have all new democracies retained a pure presidential form, except for Peru (president-parliamentary) and Bolivia (assembly-independent).
  4. ^ "Peru". Central Intelligence Agency. 27 February 2023. Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 24 February 2023 – via CIA.gov.
  5. ^ United Nations. "Population, including UN projections, 2023". Archived from the original on 26 February 2023. Retrieved 25 February 2023.
  6. ^ United Nations. "Population, including UN projections, 2023". Archived from the original on 26 February 2023. Retrieved 25 February 2023.
  7. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Peru)". International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Archived from the original on 29 October 2023. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
  8. ^ "Gini Index". World Bank. Archived from the original on 3 March 2024. Retrieved 12 March 2024.
  9. ^ "Human Development Report 2023/24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
  10. ^ Quechua name used by government of Peru is Perú (see Quechua-language version of Peru Parliament website Archived 30 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine and Quechua-language version of Peru Constitution but common Quechua name is Piruw
  11. ^ "Perú: País megadiverso" [Peru: Megadiverse country] (PDF) (in Spanish). Servicio Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 June 2014.
  12. Universidad Nacional de Trujillo
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Bibliography

Further reading

Economy
  • (in Spanish) Banco Central de Reserva. Cuadros Anuales Históricos Archived 1 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
  • (in Spanish) Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. Perú: Perfil de la pobreza por departamentos, 2004–2008. Lima: INEI, 2009.
  • Concha, Jaime. "Poetry, c. 1920–1950". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), A cultural history of Latin America. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 227–260.

External links

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