Pescetarianism
Pescetarianism | |
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Semi-vegetarianism, | |
Diet classification table | |
Pescetarianism (
Definition and etymology
"Pescetarian" is a
History
Early history
The first vegetarians in written western history may have been the Pythagoreans, a title derived from the Greek philosopher Pythagoras. Though Pythagoras loaned his name to the meatless diet, some biographers suspect he may have eaten fish as well at some points,[9] which would have made him not a vegetarian but a pescatarian by today's standards.[10] Many of Pythagoras's philosophies inspired Plato, who advocated for the moral and nutritional superiority of vegetarian-oriented diets. In Plato's ideal republic, a healthy diet would consist of cereals, seeds, beans, fruit, milk, honey and fish.[11][12]
In 675, the consumption of livestock and wild animals was banned in Japan by Emperor Tenmu, due to the influence of Buddhism and the lack of arable land.[13] However, Tenmu did not ban the consumption of deer or wild boar.[14] Subsequently, in the year 737 of the Nara period, the Emperor Seimu approved the eating of fish and shellfish. During the twelve hundred years from the Nara period to the Meiji Restoration in the latter half of the 19th century, Japanese people ate vegetarian-style meals, and on special occasions, seafood was served.[15] Exceptions were wild fowl served amongst the Heian nobility, [16] and when Europeans arrived in Japan in the 15th century, the Japanese diet included boar meat.[17]
Several orders of
The "Hearers" of the ecclesiastical hierarchy of Manichæism lived on a diet of fish, grain, and vegetables.[22] Consumption of land animals was forbidden, based on the Manichaean belief that "fish, being born in and of the waters, and without any sexual connexion on the part of other fishes, are free from the taint which pollutes all animals".[23]
The Rule of Saint Benedict insisted upon total abstinence of meat from four-footed animals, except in cases of the sick.[24] Benedictine monks thus followed a diet based on vegetables, eggs, milk, butter, cheese, and fish.[25] Paul the Deacon specified that cheese, eggs, and fish were part of a monk's ordinary diet.[25] Benedictine monk Walafrid Strabo commented, "Some salt, bread, leeks, fish and wine; that is our menu."[26]
The Carthusians followed a strict diet that consisted of fish, cheese, eggs, and vegetables, with only bread and water on Fridays.[24]
In the 13th century, Cistercian monks consumed fish and eggs.[27] Ponds were created for fish farming.[27] From the early 14th century, Benedictine and Cistercian monks no longer abstained from consuming meat of four-footed animals.[27][28] In 1336, Pope Benedict XII permitted monks to eat meat four days a week outside of the fast season if it was not served in the refectory.[28]
The anchorites of England ate a pescetarian diet of fish seasoned with apples and herbs, bean or pea soup and milk, butter and oil.[29][30]
19th century to present
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Francis William Newman, who was President of the Vegetarian Society from 1873 to 1883, made an associate membership possible for people who were not completely vegetarian like pescetarians.[31][32] Eventually, in the 1890s, Newman himself switched from following an ovo-lacto-vegetarian diet to a pescetarian diet, with the rationale that fish do not waste land space, are plentiful due to high reproduction rates, do not care for their young and have no parental feelings to violate, and can be captured and slaughtered in ways that inflict minimal pain.[33]
A 2016 book Seagan Eating promoted a seafood diet,[34][35] which is distinguished from ordinary pescetarian diets because it discourages consumption of dairy and eggs.[36]
Trends and demographics
As of 2020[update], pescetarianism has been described as a plant-based diet.[37][38] Regular fish consumption and decreased red meat consumption are recognized as dietary practices that may promote health.[39] Pescetarianism has been shown to be more popular among women than men in all regions where the data on sex ratio is available.
Global
In 2018,
United Kingdom
A 2018 poll of 2,000 United Kingdom adults found that ≈12% of adults adhered to a meat-free diet; with 2% vegan, 6–7%
In Great Britain as of January 2019, women between 18 and 24 years of age were the most likely demographic group to follow a pescetarian diet. In general, men were less interested in pescetarianism, and men 35 years and above were the least likely to adhere to a pescetarian diet pattern.[44]
Other regions
In 2018, one survey found that people in Africa and the Middle East had a high incidence of pescetarian diets (5%) when compared to other areas of the world.[4] In Europe, the incidence of pescetarianism varied by country, according to a 2020 survey documenting the dietary practices of residents in seven European nations: on average, pescetarianism was about 3% of the EU population, with slightly higher incidence in Germany and Belgium.[45]
Plants | Dairy | Eggs | Seafood | Poultry | All other animals | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vegetarianism | Ovo-lacto vegetarianism
|
Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No |
Ovo vegetarianism | Yes | No | Yes | No | No | No | |
Lacto vegetarianism | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | No | |
Veganism | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | |
Semi-vegetarianism
|
Flexitarianism | Yes | Yes | Yes | Sometimes | Sometimes | Sometimes |
Pollotarianism | Yes | Maybe | Maybe | Maybe | Yes | No | |
Pescetarianism | Yes | Maybe | Maybe | Yes | No | No |
Motivations and rationale
Sustainability and environmental concerns
It is common for all kinds of meat-abstainers to participate in the "
A Japanese study in 2018 found that various diet changes could successfully reduce the Japanese food-
Health research
A common reason for adoption of pescetarianism may be health-related, such as fish and plant food consumption as part of the Mediterranean diet, which is associated with lowered risk of cardiovascular diseases.[57][58] Pescetarian diets are under preliminary research for their potential to affect diabetes,[59] long-term weight gain,[60] and all-cause mortality.[61]
Animal welfare concerns
Pescetarianism may be perceived as a more ethical choice because fish and shellfish may not experience fear, pain, and suffering as more complex animals like mammals and other tetrapods do.[62][63][64] However, this is an ongoing debate.[65][66]
Some pescetarians may regard their diet as a transition to vegetarianism, while others may consider it an ethical compromise,[67] often as a practical necessity to obtain nutrients that are absent, not easily found, or not readily bioavailable in plants.[68]
Other considerations
Concerns have been raised about consuming some fish varieties containing toxins such as mercury and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB),[69] although it is possible to select fish that contain little or no mercury or moderate the consumption of mercury-containing fish.[70] According to a 2018 global consumer survey, the majority of pescetarians, vegetarians and vegans (87% prevalence) reported that their food product choices are influenced by ideological factors, like ethical concerns, environmental impact or social responsibility.[71] Pescetarians may be motivated by ethical concerns that are not related to animal protection or environmental protection, such as humanitarian or religious reasons. Viable sources of protein that can be consumed by food-insecure humans are not wasted on filter feeders or wild-caught fish.
In religions
Christianity
In both the
Pescetarianism is relatively popular among Seven-day Adventists when compared to the general population; in the 2000s 10% of North American Seven-day Adventists who were surveyed reported adhering to a pescetarian diet.[76] The higher popularity is likely due to the church promoting a "health message" to its followers and considering meat-consumption to be unfavorable. Adventists who eat seafood do not eat shellfish because the church expects all followers to only eat kosher foods deemed permissible by Leviticus 11.[77]
Judaism
Pescetarianism (provided the fish is
In 2015, members of the Liberal Judaism synagogue in Manchester founded The Pescetarian Society, citing pescetarianism as originally a Jewish diet, and pescetarianism as a form of vegetarianism.[81] The society has several advocacy interests; public health, promoting healthy eating, praising pescetarianism as "the natural human diet", supporting better animal welfare, bringing awareness to the climate change crisis and demanding seafood be sustainable and responsibly-caught.[81][82]
Hinduism
Some Hindus, by choice, follow a strict lacto-vegetarian diet and in India up to 44% of Hindus self-identify as some type of vegetarian.[83] However, there are Hindus who consume fish. They are mainly from coastal south-western India.[84] This community regards seafood in general as "vegetables from the sea", and refrains from eating land-based animals. Other Hindus who consume seafood are those from Bengal, Odisha, and other coastal areas.[85] In Bengal, Hindus consume fish and are known to cook it daily.[86]
Rastafari
The expression of Ital eating can vary from Rasta to Rasta but a general principle is that food should be natural or pure, and from the earth.[87] Though the Rastafari are generally associated with avid vegetarianism and veganism, a large minority of adherents do deem certain kinds[88] of fish to be an acceptable exception in the Ital diet. Rastafari who permit fish will avoid eating all kinds of shellfish as they are considered to be "unclean" scavengers,[89][90] a belief that stems from biblical teachings.[91]
See also
- Ikarianpeople found to have semi-vegetarian diets similar to pescetarianism.
- List of diets – A comprehensive index of diets covered on Wikipedia
- Mediterranean diet – Diet inspired by eating habits of the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea.
- Okinawa diet – Eating habits of the indigenous people of the Ryukyu Islands.
- Semi-vegetarianism– Other forms of semi-vegetarianism that include occasional seafood or meat consumption.
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