Lamprey
Lamprey Temporal range:
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A European river lamprey (Lampetra fluviatilis) | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Infraphylum: | Agnatha |
Class: | Hyperoartia |
Order: | Petromyzontiformes Berg, 1940[2]
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Type species | |
Subgroups | |
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Synonyms | |
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Lampreys /ˈlæmpreɪz/ (sometimes inaccurately called lamprey eels) are a group of jawless fish comprising the order Petromyzontiformes /ˌpɛtroʊmɪˈzɒntɪfɔːrmiːz/. The adult lamprey is characterized by a toothed, funnel-like sucking mouth. The common name "lamprey" is probably derived from Latin lampetra, which may mean "stone licker" (lambere "to lick" + petra "stone"), though the etymology is uncertain.[3] Lamprey is sometimes seen for the plural form.[4]
There are about 38 known extant species of lampreys
Genetic evidence suggests that lampreys are more closely related to
Modern lampreys spend the majority of their life in the juvenile "ammocoete" stage, where they burrow into the sediment and filter feed.
Distribution
Lampreys live mostly in coastal and fresh waters and are found in most temperate regions. Some
Lamprey distribution may be adversely affected by river habitat loss, overfishing and pollution.[14] In Britain, at the time of the 11th-century Norman Conquest of England, lampreys were found as far upstream in the River Thames as Petersham.[15] The reduction of pollution in the Thames and River Wear has led to recent sightings in London and Chester-le-Street.[16][17]
Distribution of lampreys may also be adversely affected by dams and other construction projects due to disruption of migration routes and obstruction of access to spawning grounds. Conversely, the construction of artificial channels has exposed new habitats for colonisation, notably in North America where sea lampreys have become a significant introduced pest in the Great Lakes. Active control programs to control lampreys are undergoing modifications due to concerns of drinking water quality in some areas.[18]
Biology
Anatomy
Adults superficially resemble eels in that they have scaleless,[19] elongated bodies, with the largest species, the sea lamprey having a maximum body length of around 1.2 metres (3.9 ft).[6] Lacking paired fins,[20] adult lampreys have one nostril atop the head[21] and seven gill pores on each side of the head.[12]
The brain of the lamprey is divided into the
Lampreys have been described as the only living vertebrates to have four eyes,[23] having a single pair of regular eyes as well as two parietal eyes: a pineal and parapineal one (the exception is members of Mordacia).[24] The eyes of juvenile lampreys are poorly developed eyespot-like structures that are covered in non-transparent skin, while the eyes of adult lampreys are well developed.[25]
The buccal cavity, anterior to the gonads, is responsible for attaching the animal, through suction, to either a stone or its prey. This then allows the tongue to make contact with the stone to rasp algae, or tear at the flesh of their prey to yield blood.[26]
The last common ancestor of lampreys appears to have been specialized to feed on the blood and body fluids of other fish after metamorphosis.[27] They attach their mouthparts to the target animal's body, then use three horny plates (laminae) on the tip of their piston-like tongue, one transversely and two longitudinally placed, to scrape through surface tissues until they reach body fluids.[28] The teeth on their oral disc are primarily used to help the animal attach itself to its prey.[29] Made of keratin and other proteins, lamprey teeth have a hollow core to give room for replacement teeth growing under the old ones.[30] Some of the original blood-feeding forms have evolved into species that feed on both blood and flesh, and some who have become specialized to eat flesh and may even invade the internal organs of the host. Tissue feeders can also involve the teeth on the oral disc in the excision of tissue.[19] As a result, the flesh-feeders have smaller buccal glands as they do not require the production of anticoagulant continuously and mechanisms for preventing solid material entering the branchial pouches, which could otherwise potentially clog the gills.[31] A study of the stomach content of some lampreys has shown the remains of intestines, fins and vertebrae from their prey.[32]
Close to the jaws of juvenile lampreys, a muscular flap-like structure called the velum is present, which serves to generate a water current towards the mouth opening, which enables feeding and respiration.[33][8]
The unique morphological characteristics of lampreys, such as their
The heart of the lamprey is anterior to the intestines. It contains the sinus, one atrium, and one ventricle protected by the pericardial cartilages.[22]
The pineal gland, a photosensitive organ regulating melatonin production by capturing light signals through the photoreceptor cell converting them into intercellular signals of the lamprey is located in the midline of its body, for lamprey, the pineal eye is accompanied by the parapineal organ.[36]
One of the key physical components to the lamprey are the
Studies have shown that lampreys are among the most energy-efficient swimmers. Their swimming movements generate low-pressure zones around the body, which pull rather than push their bodies through the water.[38]
Different species of lamprey have many shared physical characteristics. The same anatomical structure can serve different functions in the lamprey depending on whether or not it is
Many lampreys exhibit countershading, a form of camouflage.[41] Similarly to many other aquatic species, most lampreys have a dark-colored back, which enables them to blend in with the ground below when seen from above by a predator. Their light-colored undersides allow them to blend in with the bright air and water above them if a predator sees them from below.
Lamprey coloration can also vary according to the region and specific environment in which the species is found. Some species can be distinguished by their unique markings – for example,
Genetics and immunology
Northern lampreys (
Lifecycle
The adults spawn in nests of sand, gravel and pebbles in clear streams. After hatching from the eggs, young larvae—called ammocoetes[47][48]—will drift downstream with the current till they reach soft and fine sediment in silt beds, where they will burrow in silt, mud and detritus, taking up an existence as filter feeders, collecting detritus, algae, and microorganisms.[49] The eyes of the larvae are underdeveloped, but are capable of discriminating changes in illuminance.[50] Ammocoetes can grow from 3–4 inches (8–10 centimetres) to about 8 inches (20 cm).[51][52] Many species change color during a diurnal cycle, becoming dark at day and pale at night.[53] The skin also has photoreceptors, light sensitive cells, most of them concentrated in the tail, which helps them to stay buried.[54] Lampreys may spend up to eight years as ammocoetes,[55] while species such as the Arctic lamprey may only spend one to two years as larvae,[56] prior to undergoing a metamorphosis which generally lasts 3–4 months, but can vary between species.[57] While metamorphosing, they do not eat.[58]
The rate of water moving across the ammocoetes' feeding apparatus is the lowest recorded in any suspension feeding animal, and they therefore require water rich in nutrients to fulfill their nutritional needs. While the majority of (invertebrate) suspension feeders thrive in waters containing under 1 mg suspended organic solids per litre (<1 mg/L), ammocoetes demand minimum 4 mg/L, with concentrations in their habitats having been measured up to 40 mg/L.[59]
During metamorphosis the lamprey loses both the gallbladder and the biliary tract,[60] and the endostyle turns into a thyroid gland.[61]
Some species, including those that are not carnivorous and do not feed even following metamorphosis,
Anadromous lampreys spend up to four years in the sea before migrating back to freshwater, where they spawn. Adults create nests (called redds) by moving rocks, and females release thousands of eggs, sometimes up to 100,000.[62] The male, intertwined with the female, fertilizes the eggs simultaneously. Being semelparous, both adults die after the eggs are fertilized.[66]
Research on sea lampreys has revealed that sexually mature males use a specialized heat-producing tissue in the form of a ridge of fat cells near the anterior dorsal fin to stimulate females. After having attracted a female with pheromones, the heat detected by the female through body contact will encourage spawning.[67]
Classification
Taxonomists place lampreys and hagfish in the subphylum
Some researchers have classified lampreys as the sole surviving representatives of the
Cephalaspidomorpha is sometimes given as a subclass of the Cephalaspidomorphi. Fossil evidence now suggests lampreys and cephalaspids acquired their shared characters by convergent evolution.[69][70] As such, many newer works, such as the fourth edition of Fishes of the World, classify lampreys in a separate group called Hyperoartia or Petromyzontida.[68]The debate about their systematics notwithstanding, lampreys constitute a single
Phylogeny based on Brownstein & Near, 2023.[71]
Petromyzontiformes
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- Geotria australis Gray 1851 (Pouched lamprey)
- Geotria macrostoma (Burmeister 1868) (Argentinian lamprey)
- Mordacia lapicida (Gray 1851) (Chilean lamprey)
- Mordacia mordax (Richardson 1846) (Australian lamprey)
- Mordacia praecox Potter 1968 (Non-parasitic/Australian brook lamprey)
- Petromyzon marinus Linnaeus 1758 (Sea lamprey)
- Ichthyomyzon bdellium (Jordan 1885) (Ohio lamprey)
- Ichthyomyzon castaneus Girard 1858 (Chestnut lamprey)
- Ichthyomyzon fossor Reighard & Cummins 1916 (Northern brook lamprey)
- Ichthyomyzon gagei Hubbs & Trautman 1937 (Southern brook lamprey)
- Ichthyomyzon greeleyi Hubbs & Trautman 1937 (Mountain brook lamprey)
- Ichthyomyzon unicuspis Hubbs & Trautman 1937 (Silver lamprey)
- Caspiomyzon wagneri (Kessler 1870) Berg 1906 (Caspian lamprey)
- Caspiomyzon graecus (Renaud & Economidis 2010) (Ionian brook lamprey)
- Caspiomyzon hellenicus (Vladykov et al. 1982) (Greek lamprey)
- Tetrapleurodon geminis Álvarez 1964 (Mexican brook lamprey)
- Tetrapleurodon spadiceus (Bean 1887) (Mexican lamprey)
- Entosphenus folletti Vladykov & Kott 1976 (Northern California brook lamprey)
- Entosphenus lethophagus (Hubbs 1971) (Pit-Klamath brook lamprey)
- Entosphenus macrostomus (Beamish 1982) (Lake lamprey)
- Entosphenus minimus (Bond & Kan 1973) (Miller Lake lamprey)
- Entosphenus similis Vladykov & Kott 1979 (Klamath river lamprey)
- Entosphenus tridentatus (Richardson 1836) (Pacific lamprey)
- Lethenteron alaskense Vladykov & Kott 1978 (Alaskan brook lamprey)
- Lethenteron appendix (DeKay 1842) (American brook lamprey)
- Lethenteron camtschaticum (Tilesius 1811) (Arctic lamprey)
- Lethenteron kessleri (Anikin 1905) (Siberian brook lamprey)
- Lethenteron ninae Naseka, Tuniyev & Renaud 2009 (Western Transcaucasian lamprey)
- Lethenteron reissneri (Dybowski 1869) (Far Eastern brook lamprey)
- Lethenteron zanandreai (Vladykov 1955) (Lombardy lamprey)
- Eudontomyzon stankokaramani (Karaman 1974) (Drin brook lamprey)
- Eudontomyzon morii (Berg 1931) (Korean lamprey)
- Eudontomyzon danfordi Regan 1911 (Carpathian brook lamprey)
- Eudontomyzon mariae (Berg 1931) (Ukrainian brook lamprey)
- Eudontomyzon vladykovi (Oliva & Zanandrea 1959) (Vladykov's lamprey)
- Lampetra aepyptera (Abbott 1860) (Least brook lamprey)
- Lampetra alavariensis Mateus et al. 2013 (Portuguese lamprey)
- Lampetra auremensis Mateus et al. 2013 (Qurem lamprey)
- Lampetra ayresi (Günther 1870) (Western river lamprey)
- Lampetra fluviatilis (Linnaeus 1758) (European river lamprey)
- Lampetra hubbsi (Vladykov & Kott 1976) (Kern brook lamprey)
- Lampetra lanceolata Kux & Steiner 1972 (Turkish brook lamprey)
- Lampetra lusitanica Mateus et al. 2013 (lusitanic lamprey)
- Lampetra pacifica Vladykov 1973 (Pacific brook lamprey)
- Lampetra planeri (Bloch 1784) (European brook lamprey)
- Lampetra richardsoni Vladykov & Follett 1965 (Western brook lamprey)
- Entosphenus macrostomus Dr. Dick Beamish 1980 (Cowichan lake lamprey)
Recent studies differ regarding the timing of the last common ancestor of all living lampreys, with some suggesting a Middle Jurassic date, around 175 million years ago,
Fossil record
The oldest fossil lamprey,
Lamprey and chordate synapomorphies
Oftentimes adult amphioxus and lamprey larvae are compared by anatomists due to their similarities. Similarities between adult amphioxus and lamprey larvae include a pharynx with pharyngeal slits, a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord and a series of somites that extend anterior to the otic vesicle.[79]
Use in research
The lamprey has been extensively studied because its relatively simple brain is thought in many respects to reflect the brain structure of early vertebrate ancestors. Beginning in the 1970s,
In a series of studies by Rovainen and his student James Buchanan, the cells that formed the neural circuits within the spinal cord capable of generating the rhythmic motor patterns that underlie swimming were examined. Note that there are still missing details in the network scheme despite claims by Grillner that the network is characterised (Parker 2006, 2010
In a study of the lamprey tectum published in 2007,[84] they found electrical stimulation could elicit eye movements, lateral bending movements, or swimming activity, and the type, amplitude, and direction of movement varied as a function of the location within the tectum that was stimulated. These findings were interpreted as consistent with the idea that the tectum generates goal-directed locomotion in the lamprey.
Lampreys are used as a model organism in biomedical research, where their large reticulospinal axons are used to investigate synaptic transmission.[85] The axons of lamprey are particularly large and allow for microinjection of substances for experimental manipulation.
They are also capable of full functional recovery after complete spinal cord transection. Another trait is the ability to delete several genes from their somatic cell lineages, about 20% of their DNA, which are vital during development of the embryo, but which in humans can cause problems such as cancer later in life, after they have served their purpose. How the genes destined for deletion are targeted is not yet known.[86][87]
Relationship with humans
Attacks on humans
Although attacks on humans have been documented,[88] they will generally not attack humans unless starved.[89]
As food
People have long eaten lampreys.[90] They were highly appreciated by the ancient Romans. During the Middle Ages they were widely eaten by the upper classes throughout Europe, especially during Lent, when eating meat was prohibited, due to their meaty taste and texture. King Henry I of England is claimed to have been so fond of lampreys that he often ate them, late into life and poor health, against the advice of his physician concerning their richness, and is said to have died from eating "a surfeit of lampreys". Whether or not his lamprey indulgence actually caused his death is unclear,[91] but the phrase persists in British culture.
A lamprey pie was made for the coronation of Elizabeth II in 1953. Sixty years later, the city of Gloucester had to use fish from North America for her Diamond Jubilee, because few lampreys could be found in the River Severn.[92][93]
In southwestern Europe (Portugal, Spain, and France), Finland and in Latvia (where lamprey is routinely sold in supermarkets), lampreys are a highly prized delicacy. In Finland (county of Nakkila),[94] and Latvia (Carnikava Municipality), the river lamprey is the local symbol, found on their coats of arms. In 2015 the lamprey from Carnikava was included in the Protected designation of origin list by the European Commission.[95]
Sea lamprey is the most sought-after species in Portugal and one of only two that can legally bear the commercial name "lamprey" (lampreia): the other one being Lampetra fluviatilis, the European river lamprey, both according to Portaria (Government regulation no. 587/2006, from 22 June). "Arroz de lampreia" or lamprey rice is one of the most important dishes in Portuguese cuisine.
Lampreys are also consumed in Sweden, Russia, Lithuania, Estonia, Japan, and South Korea.[
The mucus and serum of several lamprey species, including the Caspian lamprey (Caspiomyzon wagneri), river lampreys (Lampetra fluviatilis and L. planeri), and sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), are known to be toxic, and require thorough cleaning before cooking and consumption.[98][99]
In Britain, lampreys are commonly used as
As pests
Sea lampreys have become a major
They are considered an invasive species, have no natural enemies in the lakes, and prey on many species of commercial value, such as lake trout.[100]Lampreys are now found mostly in the streams that feed the lakes, and controlled with special barriers to prevent the upstream movement of adults, or by the application of toxicants called lampricides, which are harmless to most other aquatic species; however, these programs are complicated and expensive, and do not eradicate the lampreys from the lakes, but merely keep them in check.[103]
New programs are being developed, including the use of chemically
Control of sea lampreys in the Great Lakes is conducted by the
In folklore
In folklore, lampreys are called "nine-eyed eels". The name is derived from the seven external gill slits that, along with one nostril and one eye, line each side of a lamprey's head section. Likewise, the German word for lamprey is Neunauge, which means "nine-eye",[110] and in Japanese they are called yatsume-unagi (八つ目鰻, "eight-eyed eels"), which excludes the nostril from the count. In British folklore, the monster known as the Lambton Worm may have been based on a lamprey, since it is described as an eel-like creature with nine eyes.[citation needed]
In literature
Vedius Pollio kept a pool of lampreys into which slaves who incurred his displeasure would be thrown as food.[111] On one occasion, Vedius was punished by Augustus for attempting to do so in his presence:
... one of his slaves had broken a crystal cup. Vedius ordered him to be seized and then put to death, but in an unusual way. He ordered him to be thrown to the huge lampreys which he had in his fish pond. Who would not think he did this for display? Yet it was out of cruelty. The boy slipped from the captor's hands and fled to Augustus's feet asking nothing else other than a different way to die – he did not want to be eaten. Augustus was moved by the novelty of the cruelty and ordered him to be released, all the crystal cups to be broken before his eyes, and the fish pond to be filled in ...
This incident was incorporated into the plot of the 2003 novel Pompeii by Robert Harris in the incident of Ampliatus feeding a slave to his lampreys.
Lucius Licinius Crassus was mocked by Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (cos. 54 BC) for weeping over the death of his pet lamprey:
So, when Domitius said to Crassus the orator, Did not you weep for the death of the lamprey you kept in your fish pond? – Did not you, said Crassus to him again, bury three wives without ever shedding a tear? – Plutarch, On the Intelligence of Animals, 976a[113]
This story is also found in Aelian (Various Histories VII, 4) and Macrobius (Saturnalia III.15.3). It is included by Hugo von Hofmannsthal in the Chandos Letter:
And in my mind I compare myself from time to time with the orator Crassus, of whom it is reported that he grew so excessively enamoured of a tame lamprey – a dumb, apathetic, red-eyed fish in his ornamental pond – that it became the talk of the town; and when one day in the Senate Domitius reproached him for having shed tears over the death of this fish, attempting thereby to make him appear a fool, Crassus answered, "Thus have I done over the death of my fish as you have over the death of neither your first nor your second wife." I know not how oft this Crassus with his lamprey enters my mind as a mirrored image of my Self, reflected across the abyss of centuries.
— Philip, Lord Chandos, (fictional) younger son of the Earl of Bath, in a letter to Francis Bacon[114]
In George R. R. Martin's novel series, A Song of Ice and Fire, Lord Wyman Manderly is mockingly called "Lord Lamprey" by his enemies in reference to his rumored affinity to lamprey pie and his striking obesity.[115]
Kurt Vonnegut, in his late short story "The Big Space Fuck", posits a future America so heavily polluted – "Everything had turned to shit and beer cans", in his words – that the Great Lakes have been infested with a species of massive, man-eating ambulatory lampreys.[116]
In television
In season 3, episode 5 of "The Borgias", whilst out on a hunting trip, Cesare Borgia's mercenary, Micheletto, kills the King of Naples by pushing him into a pool filled with lampreys that King Ferrante had built during his reign of Naples.[117]
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{{cite book}}
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Further reading
General
- Renaud, C.B. (2011) Lampreys of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of lamprey species known to date FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes. No. 5. Rome. ISBN 978-92-5-106928-8.
Research on pheromones for pest control
- Sorensen, Peter W.; Fine, Jared M.; Dvornikovs, Vadims; Jeffrey, Christopher S.; Shao, Feng; Wang, Jizhou; Vrieze, Lance A.; Anderson, Kari R.; Hoye, Thomas R. (2005). "Mixture of new sulfated steroids functions as a migratory pheromone in the sea lamprey". , accessed 1 July 2015. [Primary source example.]
- Dittman, Andrew (2005). "News and Views: Chemical cues for sea lamprey migration". S2CID 42664483., see Chemical cues for sea lamprey migration, accessed 1 July 2015. [Lay summary of Sorensen, et al. (2005)]
- Johnson, Nicholas S.; Yun, Sang-Seon; Thompson, Henry T.; Brant, Cory O.; Li, Weiming (2009). "A synthesized pheromone induces upstream movement in female sea lamprey and summons them into traps". PMID 19164592. [Primary source example.]
- Richard Black, 2009, "Sex smell lures 'vampire' to doom," BBC News (online), 20 January 2009, see "Sex smell lures 'vampire' to doom", accessed 1 July 2015. [Lay summary of Johnson, et al. (2009); Subtitle: "A synthetic 'chemical sex smell' could help rid North America's Great Lakes of a devastating pest, scientists say."]
External links
- Media related to Petromyzontiformes at Wikimedia Commons
- "ITIS report on the lampreys". ITIS. Retrieved 27 September 2012.
- "Lamprey". Inland Fisheries Ireland. Archived from the original on 25 April 2021. Retrieved 27 September 2012.
- Long-accepted theory of vertebrate origin upended by fossilized lamprey larvae
- "The Tree of Life". Archived from the original on 26 January 2016. Retrieved 27 September 2012. A Tree of Life diagram showing the relation of Lampreys to other organisms.