Phaeohyphomycosis

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Phaeohyphomycosis
Infectious diseases[1]
Symptoms
Causes
antifungals[3]
MedicationItraconazole, amphotericin B[3]
FrequencyRare[5]

Phaeohyphomycosis is a diverse group of

hyphae, yeast-like cells, or a combination of these.[7] It can be associated with an array of melanistic filamentous fungi including Alternaria species,[8] Exophiala jeanselmei,[9] and Rhinocladiella mackenziei.[10]

The term "phaeohyphomycosis" was introduced to determine infections caused by dematiaceous (pigmented)

antifungal treatment is poor, and mortality is almost 80%.[12] Phaeohyphomycosis has been attributed to more than 100 species and 60 genera of fungi over the past several decades. The pathogens are considered opportunistic. Almost all cases of widely disseminated infection have occurred in immunosuppressed people.[12]

Clinical signs of phaeohyphomycosis

Wildlife

Phaeohyphomycosis is found throughout the animal kingdom. From

molluscs to humans, different strains of this fungus affect animals differently, based on how severely the fungus has infected the animal. The clinical signs depend on the species of animal that is infected as well as the strain of fungus it is infected with. This disease is usually found more often in stressed animals after removal from their habitat.[citation needed
]

Invertebrates

Invertebrates, such as crabs and mollusks, show a variety of clinical signs.

Crabs had increasingly weak motor control, especially in legs and claws, and were

lethargic. They had poor balance and tetany, or muscle spasms, in the claws. Finally, they had tissue necrosis, which caused deterioration of the epidermis, connective tissue, heart, hepatopancreas, nervous system, and gills. In severe cases, there was congestion of hemal sinuses, two principal empty areas along the digestive tube and vessels. Mass amounts of yeast-like cells compressed nerve fibers and the gill lamellae were destroyed.[citation needed
]

Mollusks clinical signs vary from scattered spots of brownish discoloration on the mantle tissues to general deterioration of mussel condition. In severe cases, there were black-bodied mussels with a distinct odor and black yeast cells infected the connective tissues around the gonads and the digestive tract.[13]

Cold-blooded vertebrates

Cold-blooded vertebrates can exhibit an assortment of clinical signs.

Amphibians may show signs of anorexia. Ulcers or nodules in the skin can be found, as well as swelling and lesions of internal organs, including the spleen, liver, and kidney. In extreme cases, neurological disorders and multifocal dermatitis (swelling caused by irritation of the fungus) can occur.

Fish demonstrate signs of lethargy and disoriented swimming. Ulcerative lesions, multiple dark foci in the gills, and non-ulcerative dermal masses may be found. In critical cases, some fish show a variety of inflammatory responses including the formation of microabscesses. Lesions in the brain and kidneys may be present. These fish have abnormal swimming behavior, bulging eyes, and abdominal swelling.[13]

Warm-blooded vertebrates

From birds to equines, phaeohyphomycosis persists and has a massive range of clinical signs throughout differing species. Infected poultry and wild birds can develop neurological disorders and a loss of movement control. They may experience severe torticollis, which are severe muscle spasms that compromise the bird’s ability to hold up its head. Birds can exhibit a loss of balance due to the rigidity of their legs.[citation needed]

Cats can exhibit signs of breathing difficulty due to excessive swelling of the nose. Lesions may occur throughout the body, including the brain.[13] Common lesions include ulcerated cutaneous nodules of the digits, pinnae, nasal planum, and nasal/paranasal tissues.[14]

In extreme cases dogs exhibit vision impairment and have deep infections in the nasal cavity, kidneys, and the cerebellum. In dogs, brain infections similar to infections found in humans may occur. Other clinical signs are lesions, abscesses, and severe inflammation throughout the dog’s body.

Ruminants and equines are affected the same way from phaeohyphomycosis. They can exhibit respiratory distress with constant coughing and a fever. They demonstrate signs of anorexia, lethargy, and hypothermia. There may be inflammation, hair loss, scaling, and damage to the cerebellum.[13]

Humans

Humans' clinical signs consist of swelling and eye infections. Nodules underneath the skin, abscesses or cysts may be present.[15] and lesions can run throughout the body,[16] including papules, plaques and granulomatous damage.[16] In extreme cases there can be deep infections within the eyes, bones, heart and central nervous system.[17]

Treatment

Extensive treatments have been used on domestic animals more than on wild animals, probably because infected domestic animals are easier to identify and treat than infected wildlife. Treatment plans and management vary across

isavuconazole.[13]

In 2006, a free-living

euthanized due to extent of lesional involvement and the caretakers’ belief that the turtle would not be able to survive if placed back in the wild. At necropsy, Exophiala jeanselmei was cultured from a swab of the lesion.[18]

A recent case of a form of phaeohyphomycosis infection was found in a dog in 2011.

Boxer dog. Veterinarians of the Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences at Tufts University surgically removed the granuloma in the right cerebral hemisphere. The patient was treated with fluconazole for 4 months, followed by voriconazole for 10 months. Based on magnetic resonance imaging and cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF) analysis 8 months after the surgery, the male Boxer’s outcome was considered excellent.

Emphasis has been placed on how to manage this disease through careful management practices including: proper handling, preventing crowding situation with animals, and transportation.[13] Both the animals and the environment should be treated thoroughly to hinder the spread and control the fungal infection. This is especially important since humans can also contract this disease.

Research projects and implications

Phaeohyphomycosis is a disease caused by fungi. If given the opportunity, the disease can involve the brain and cause a painful death. There have been multiple reports of this host of fungi, but by the time the disease is recognized, it is usually too late for the animal to be successfully treated. Recent searches of databases show that there are no current projects studying the spread of this fungus in wild animals, though there are documented cases of its occurrence.

In 2005, a five-month-old

camelid ruminant.[21]

In conclusion, phaeohyphomycosis is a highly prolific disease that is caused by multiple

genera
of fungi. The disease is transmissible through several mediums, including air, wind, and water. Both individual animals and whole populations can be affected by it. Although it does not seem to be an epidemic, it is nonetheless an area of concern and requires much more active research rather than simply reports of terminal or already-dead animals.

See also

  • Skin lesion

References

  1. ^ "ICD-11 - ICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics". icd.who.int. Retrieved 30 June 2021.
  2. ISBN 978-0-7020-6830-0
    .
  3. ^
    ISBN 978-0-323-61138-1
    .
  4. S2CID 210983369
    .
  5. ISBN 978-93-86261-83-0
    .
  6. PMID 19375639
    .
  7. ISBN 978-0-7216-2921-6
    .
  8. S2CID 23751797
    .
  9. S2CID 40160899
    .
  10. PMID 19886775
    .
  11. S2CID 34885774
    .
  12. ^
    PMID 11797173
    .
  13. ^
    PMID 23297257
    .
  14. ^ "Phaeohyphomycosis". The Merck Veterinary Manual. Retrieved 2019-06-17.
  15. PMID 23734832
    .
  16. ^
    PMID 23591621
    .
  17. PMID 14532219
    .
  18. PMID 17255461
    .
  19. PMID 21838585
    .
  20. PMID 16542676
    .
  21. PMID 21511274
    .
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phaeohyphomycosis&oldid=1216702593"