Pharisees
Pharisees פרושים | |
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Historical leaders | |
Founded | 167 BCE |
Dissolved | 73 CE |
Headquarters | Jerusalem |
Ideology | |
Religion | Rabbinic Judaism |
Part of a series on |
Jews and Judaism |
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The Pharisees (
Conflicts between Pharisees and
Pharisees are notable by the numerous references to them in the
Etymology
"Pharisee" is derived from
Sources
The first historical mention of the Pharisees and their beliefs comes in the four gospels and the
, although their status as Jews is unclear.However, none of the Rabbinic sources include identifiable eyewitness accounts of the Pharisees and their teachings.[23]
History
From c. 600 BCE – c. 160 BCE
The deportation and
In 539 BCE the
The Temple was no longer the only institution for Jewish religious life. After the building of the Second Temple in the time of
Although priests controlled the rituals of the Temple, the
The
Emergence of the Pharisees
After defeating the Seleucid forces,
The Pharisees emerged[
Josephus indicates that the Pharisees received the backing and good-will of the common people,[30] apparently in contrast to the more elite Sadducees associated with the ruling classes. In general, whereas the Sadducees were aristocratic monarchists, the Pharisees were eclectic, popular, and more democratic.[31] The Pharisaic position is exemplified by the assertion that "A learned mamzer takes precedence over an ignorant High Priest." (A mamzer, according to the Pharisaic definition, is an outcast child born of a forbidden relationship, such as adultery or incest, in which marriage of the parents could not lawfully occur. The word is often, but incorrectly, translated as "illegitimate".)[32]
Sadducees rejected the Pharisaic tenet of an Oral Torah, creating two Jewish understandings of the Torah. An example of this differing approach is the interpretation of, "an eye in place of an eye". The Pharisaic understanding was that the value of an eye was to be paid by the perpetrator.[33] In the Sadducees' view the words were given a more literal interpretation, in which the offender's eye would be removed.[34]
The sages of the Talmud see a direct link between themselves and the Pharisees, and historians generally consider Pharisaic Judaism to be the progenitor of Rabbinic Judaism, that is normative, mainstream Judaism after the destruction of the Second Temple. All mainstream forms of Judaism today consider themselves heirs of Rabbinic Judaism and, ultimately, the Pharisees.
The Hasmonean period
Although the Pharisees did not support the wars of expansion of the Hasmoneans and the forced conversions of the
After the death of John Hyrcanus, his younger son
After her death her elder son Hyrcanus II was generally supported by the Pharisees. Her younger son, Aristobulus II, was in conflict with Hyrcanus, and tried to seize power. The Pharisees seemed to be in a vulnerable position at this time.[37] The conflict between the two sons culminated in a civil war that ended when the Roman general Pompey intervened, and captured Jerusalem in 63 BCE.
Josephus' account may overstate the role of the Pharisees. He reports elsewhere that the Pharisees did not grow to power until the reign of Queen Salome Alexandra.[38] As Josephus was himself a Pharisee, his account might represent a historical creation meant to elevate the status of the Pharisees during the height of the Hasmonean Dynasty.[39]
Later texts like the Mishnah and the Talmud record a host of rulings by rabbis, some of whom are believed to be from among the Pharisees, concerning sacrifices and other ritual practices in the Temple, torts, criminal law, and governance. In their day, the influence of the Pharisees over the lives of the common people was strong and their rulings on Jewish law were deemed authoritative by many.[citation needed]
The Roman period
According to Josephus, the Pharisees appeared before Pompey asking him to interfere and restore the old priesthood while abolishing the royalty of the Hasmoneans altogether.[40] Pharisees also opened Jerusalem's gates to the Romans, and actively supported them against the Sadducean faction.[41] When the Romans finally broke the entrance to the Jerusalem's Temple, they killed the priests who were officiating the Temple services on Saturday.[42] They regarded Pompey's defilement of the Temple in Jerusalem as a divine punishment of Sadducean misrule. Pompey ended the monarchy in 63 BCE and named Hyrcanus II high priest and ethnarch (a lesser title than "king").[43] Six years later Hyrcanus was deprived of the remainder of political authority and ultimate jurisdiction was given to the Proconsul of Syria, who ruled through Hyrcanus's Idumaean associate Antipater, and later Antipater's two sons Phasael (military governor of Judea) and Herod (military governor of Galilee). In 40 BCE Aristobulus's son Antigonus overthrew Hyrcanus and named himself king and high priest, and Herod fled to Rome.
In Rome, Herod sought the support of
While it stood, the Second Temple remained the center of Jewish ritual life. Jews were required to travel to Jerusalem and offer sacrifices at the Temple three times a year: Pesach (Passover), Shavuot (the Feast of Weeks), and Sukkot (the Feast of Tabernacles). The Pharisees, like the Sadducees, were politically quiescent, and studied, taught, and worshiped in their own way. At this time serious theological differences emerged between the Sadducees and Pharisees. The notion that the sacred could exist outside the Temple, a view central to the Essenes, was shared and elevated by the Pharisees.[citation needed]
Legacy
At first, the values of the Pharisees developed through their sectarian debates with the Sadducees; then they developed through internal, non-sectarian debates over the law as an adaptation to life without the Temple, and life in exile, and eventually, to a more limited degree, life in conflict with Christianity.[47] These shifts mark the transformation of Pharisaic to Rabbinic Judaism.
Beliefs
No single tractate of the key Rabbinic texts, the
Monotheism
One belief central to the Pharisees which was shared by all Jews of the time is
Wisdom
Pharisaic wisdom was compiled in one book of the Mishna, Pirkei Avot. The Pharisaic attitude is perhaps[citation needed] best exemplified by a story about the sages Hillel the Elder and Shammai, who both lived in the latter half of the 1st century BCE. A Gentile once challenged Shammai to teach him the wisdom of the Torah while he stood on one foot. Shammai drove him away. The same gentile approached Hillel and asked of him the same thing. Hillel chastised him gently by saying, "What is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow. That is the whole Torah; the rest is the explanation – now go and study."[48]
Free will and predestination
According to Josephus, whereas the Sadducees believed that people have total
The afterlife
Unlike the Sadducees, who are generally held to have rejected any existence after death, the sources vary on the beliefs of the Pharisees on the afterlife. According to the New Testament the Pharisees believed in the
Practices
A kingdom of priests
Fundamentally, the Pharisees continued a form of Judaism that extended beyond the Temple, applying Jewish law to mundane activities in order to sanctify the everyday world. This was a more participatory (or "democratic") form of Judaism, in which rituals were not monopolized by an inherited priesthood but rather could be performed by all adult Jews individually or collectively; whose leaders were not determined by birth but by scholarly achievement.[citation needed]
Many, including some scholars, have characterized the Sadducees as a sect that interpreted the Torah literally, and the Pharisees as interpreting the Torah liberally. R' Yitzhak Isaac Halevi suggests that this was not, in fact, a matter of religion. He claims that the complete rejection of Judaism would not have been tolerated under the Hasmonean rule and therefore Hellenists maintained that they were rejecting not Judaism but Rabbinic law. Thus, the Sadducees were in fact a political party not a religious sect.[17] However, according to Jacob Neusner, this view is a distortion. He suggests that two things fundamentally distinguished the Pharisaic from the Sadducean approach to the Torah. First, Pharisees believed in a broad and literal interpretation of Exodus (19:3–6), "you shall be my own possession among all peoples; for all the earth is mine, and you shall be to me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation,"[54]: 40 and the words of 2 Maccabees (2:17): "God gave all the people the heritage, the kingdom, the priesthood, and the holiness."
The Pharisees believed that the idea that all of the children of Israel were to be like priests was expressed elsewhere in the Torah, for example, when the Law itself was transferred from the sphere of the priesthood to every man in Israel.
The Oral Torah
The standard view is that the Pharisees differed from Sadducees in the sense that they accepted the Oral Torah in addition to the Scripture. Anthony J. Saldarini argues that this assumption has neither implicit nor explicit evidence. A critique of the ancient interpretations of the Bible are distant from what modern scholars consider literal. Saldarini states that the Oral Torah did not come about until the third century CE, although there was an unstated idea about it in existence. Every Jewish community in a way possessed their own version of the Oral Torah which governed their religious practices. Josephus stated that the Sadducees only followed literal interpretations of the Torah. To Saldarini, this only means that the Sadducees followed their own way of Judaism and rejected the Pharisaic version of Judaism.[58] To Rosemary Ruether, the Pharisaic proclamation of the Oral Torah was their way of freeing Judaism from the clutches of Aaronite priesthood, represented by the Sadducees. The Oral Torah was to remain oral but was later given a written form. It did not refer to the Torah in a status as a commentary, rather had its own separate existence which allowed Pharisaic innovations.[59]
The sages of the Talmud believed that the Oral law was simultaneously revealed to Moses at Sinai, and the product of debates among rabbis. Thus, one may conceive of the "Oral Torah" as both based on the fixed text and as an ongoing process of analysis and argument in which God is actively involved; it was this ongoing process that was revealed at Sinai along with the scripture, and by participating in this ongoing process rabbis and their students are actively participating in God's ongoing act of revelation.[citation needed]
As Jacob Neusner has explained, the schools of the Pharisees and rabbis were and are holy:
"...because there men achieve sainthood through study of Torah and imitation of the conduct of the masters. In doing so, they conform to the heavenly paradigm, the Torah believed to have been created by God "in his image," revealed at Sinai, and handed down to their own teachers ... If the masters and disciples obey the divine teaching of Moses, "our rabbi," then their society, the school, replicates on earth the heavenly academy, just as the disciple incarnates the heavenly model of Moses, "our rabbi." The rabbis believe that Moses was (and the Messiah will be) a rabbi, God dons phylacteries, and the heavenly court studies Torah precisely as does the earthly one, even arguing about the same questions. These beliefs today may seem as projections of rabbinical values onto heaven, but the rabbis believe that they themselves are projections of heavenly values onto earth. The rabbis thus conceive that on earth they study Torah just as God, the angels, and Moses, "our rabbi," do in heaven. The heavenly schoolmen are even aware of Babylonian scholastic discussions, so they require a rabbi's information about an aspect of purity taboos.[54]: 8
The commitment to relate religion to daily life through the law has led some (notably,
Innovators or preservers
The Mishna in the beginning of Avot and (in more detail) Maimonides in his Introduction to Mishneh Torah records a chain of tradition (mesorah) from Moses at Mount Sinai down to R' Ashi, redactor of the Talmud and last of the Amoraim. This chain of tradition includes the interpretation of unclear statements in the Bible (e.g. that the "fruit of a beautiful tree" refers to a citron as opposed to any other fruit), the methods of textual exegesis (the disagreements recorded in the Mishna and Talmud generally focus on methods of exegesis), and Laws with Mosaic authority that cannot be derived from the Biblical text (these include measurements (e.g. what amount of a non-kosher food must one eat to be liable), the amount and order of the scrolls to be placed in the phylacteries, etc.).
The Pharisees were also innovators in that they enacted specific laws as they saw necessary according to the needs of the time. These included prohibitions to prevent an infringement of a biblical prohibition (e.g. one does not take a Lulav on Shabbat "Lest one carry it in the public domain") called gezeirot, among others. The commandment to read the Megillah (
In an interesting twist, Abraham Geiger posits that the Sadducees were the more hidebound adherents to an ancient Halacha whereas the Pharisees were more willing to develop Halacha as the times required. See however, Bernard Revel's "Karaite Halacha" which rejects many of Geiger's proofs.
Significance of debate and study of the law
Just as important as (if not more important than) any particular law was the value the rabbis placed on legal study and debate. The sages of the Talmud believed that when they taught the Oral Torah to their students, they were imitating Moses, who taught the law to the children of Israel. Moreover, the rabbis believed that "the heavenly court studies Torah precisely as does the earthly one, even arguing about the same questions."[54]: 8 Thus, in debating and disagreeing over the meaning of the Torah or how best to put it into practice, no rabbi felt that he (or his opponent) was rejecting God or threatening Judaism; on the contrary, it was precisely through such arguments that the rabbis imitated and honored God.
One sign of the Pharisaic emphasis on debate and differences of opinion is that the Mishnah and Talmud mark different generations of scholars in terms of different pairs of contending schools. In the first century, for example, the two major Pharisaic schools were those of Hillel and Shammai. After Hillel died in 20 CE, Shammai assumed the office of president of the Sanhedrin until he died in 30 CE. Followers of these two sages dominated scholarly debate over the following decades. Although the Talmud records the arguments and positions of the school of Shammai, the teachings of the school of Hillel were ultimately taken as authoritative.[citation needed]
From Pharisees to rabbis
Following the
Of all the major Second Temple sects,
The Temple is destroyed. We never witnessed its glory. But Rabbi Joshua did. And when he looked at the Temple ruins one day, he burst into tears. "Alas for us! The place which atoned for the sins of all the people Israel lies in ruins!" Then Rabbi Yohannan ben Zakkai spoke to him these words of comfort: "Be not grieved, my son. There is another way of gaining ritual atonement, even though the Temple is destroyed. We must now gain ritual atonement through deeds of loving-kindness."[citation needed]
Following the destruction of the Temple, Rome governed Judea through a
After the destruction of the First Temple, Jews believed that God would forgive them and enable them to rebuild the Temple – an event that actually occurred within three generations. After the destruction of the Second Temple, Jews wondered whether this would happen again. When the Emperor
Romans forbade Jews to enter Jerusalem (except for the day of Tisha B'Av), and forbade any plan to rebuild the Temple. Instead, it took over the Province of Judea directly, renaming it Syria Palaestina, and renaming Jerusalem Aelia Capitolina. Romans did eventually reconstitute the Sanhedrin under the leadership of Judah haNasi (who claimed to be a descendant of King David). They conferred the title of "Nasi" as hereditary, and Judah's sons served both as Patriarch and as heads of the Sanhedrin.[citation needed]
Post-Temple developments
According to historian Shaye Cohen, by the time three generations had passed after the destruction of the Second Temple, most Jews concluded that the Temple would not be rebuilt during their lives, nor in the foreseeable future. Jews were now confronted with difficult and far-reaching questions:
- How to achieve atonement without the Temple?
- How to explain the disastrous outcome of the rebellion?
- How to live in the post-Temple, Romanized world?
- How to connect present and past traditions?
Regardless of the importance they gave to the Temple, and despite their support of Bar Koseba's revolt, the Pharisees' vision of Jewish law as a means by which ordinary people could engage with the sacred in their daily lives provided them with a position from which to respond to all four challenges in a way meaningful to the vast majority of Jews. Their responses would constitute Rabbinic Judaism.[16]
After the destruction of the Second Temple, these sectarian divisions ended. The Rabbis avoided the term "Pharisee," perhaps because it was a term more often used by non-Pharisees, but also because the term was explicitly sectarian.[citation needed] The Rabbis claimed leadership over all Jews, and added to the Amidah the birkat haMinim, a prayer which in part exclaims, "Praised are You O Lord, who breaks enemies and defeats the wicked," and which is understood as a rejection of sectarians and sectarianism. This shift by no means resolved conflicts over the interpretation of the Torah; rather, it relocated debates between sects to debates within Rabbinic Judaism. The Pharisaic commitment to scholarly debate as a value in and of itself, rather than merely a byproduct of sectarianism, emerged as a defining feature of Rabbinic Judaism.[citation needed]
Thus, as the Pharisees argued that all Israel should act as priests, the Rabbis argued that all Israel should act as rabbis: "The rabbis furthermore want to transform the entire Jewish community into an academy where the whole Torah is studied and kept .... redemption depends on the "rabbinization" of all Israel, that is, upon the attainment of all Jewry of a full and complete embodiment of revelation or Torah, thus achieving a perfect replica of heaven."[54]: 9 Rabbinic Judaism at this time and afterwards contained the idea of the Heavenly Academy, a heavenly institute where God taught scripture.[66]
The Rabbinic era itself is divided into two periods. The first period was that of the
The second period is that of the Amoraim (from the Aramaic word for "speaker") rabbis and their students who continued to debate legal matters and discuss the meaning of the books of the
Rabbinic Judaism eventually emerged as normative Judaism and in fact many today refer to Rabbinic Judaism simply as "Judaism." Jacob Neusner, however, states that the Amoraim had no ultimate power in their communities. They lived at a time when Jews were subjects of either the Roman or Iranian (Parthian and Persian) empires. These empires left the day-to-day governance in the hands of the Jewish authorities: in Roman Palestine, through the hereditary office of Patriarch (simultaneously the head of the Sanhedrin); in Babylonia, through the hereditary office of the
The "Judaism" of the rabbis at this time is in no degree either normal or normative, and speaking descriptively, the schools cannot be called "elite." Whatever their aspirations for the future and pretensions in the present, the rabbis, though powerful and influential, constitute a minority group seeking to exercise authority without much governmental support, to dominate without substantial means of coercion.[54]: 4–5
In Neusner's view, the rabbinic project, as acted out in the Talmud, reflected not the world as it was but the world as rabbis dreamed it should be.
According to S. Baron however, there existed "a general willingness of the people to follow its self imposed Rabbinic rulership". Although the Rabbis lacked authority to impose capital punishment "Flagellation and heavy fines, combined with an extensive system of excommunication were more than enough to uphold the authority of the courts." In fact, the Rabbis took over more and more power from the Reish Galuta until eventually R' Ashi assumed the title Rabbana, heretofore assumed by the exilarch, and appeared together with two other Rabbis as an official delegation "at the gate of King Yazdegard's court." The Amorah (and Tanna) Rav was a personal friend of the last Parthian king Artabenus and Shmuel was close to Shapur I, King of Persia. Thus, the Rabbis had significant means of "coercion" and the people seem to have followed the Rabbinic rulership.[citation needed]
Pharisees and Christianity
The Pharisees appear in the New Testament, engaging in conflicts between themselves and John the Baptist[67] and with Jesus, and because Nicodemus the Pharisee (John 3:1) with Joseph of Arimathea entombed Jesus' body at great personal risk. Gamaliel, the highly respected rabbi and, according to Christianity, defender of the apostles, was also a Pharisee, and according to some Christian traditions secretly converted to Christianity.[68]
There are several references in the New Testament to Paul the Apostle being a Pharisee before converting to Christianity,[69] and other members of the Pharisee sect are known from Acts 15:5 to have become Christian believers. It was some members of his group who argued that gentile converts must be circumcised and obliged to follow the Mosaic law, leading to a dispute within the early Church addressed at the Apostolic Council in Jerusalem,[70] in 50 CE.
The New Testament, particularly the Synoptic Gospels, presents especially the leadership of the Pharisees as obsessed with man-made rules (especially concerning purity) whereas Jesus is more concerned with God's love; the Pharisees scorn sinners whereas Jesus seeks them out. (The Gospel of John, which is the only gospel where Nicodemus is mentioned, particularly portrays the sect as divided and willing to debate.) Because of the New Testament's frequent depictions of Pharisees as self-righteous rule-followers (see also Woes of the Pharisees and Legalism (theology)), the word "pharisee" (and its derivatives: "pharisaical", etc.) has come into semi-common usage in English to describe a hypocritical and arrogant person who places the letter of the law above its spirit.[71] Jews today typically find this insulting and some consider the use of the word to be anti-Semitic.[72]
Hyam Maccoby speculated that Jesus was himself a Pharisee and that his arguments with Pharisees is a sign of inclusion rather than fundamental conflict (disputation being the dominant narrative mode employed in the Talmud as a search for truth, and not necessarily a sign of opposition).[73] However, Maccoby's views have been widely rejected by scholars.[74]
Examples of disputed passages include the story of Jesus declaring the sins of a paralytic man forgiven and the Pharisees calling the action blasphemy. In the story, Jesus counters the accusation that he does not have the power to forgive sins by pronouncing forgiveness of sins and then healing the man. The account of the Paralytic Man[75] and Jesus's performance of miracles on the Sabbath[76] are often interpreted as oppositional and at times antagonistic to that of the Pharisees' teachings.[77]
However, according to E. P. Sanders, Jesus' actions are actually similar to and consistent with Jewish beliefs and practices of the time, as recorded by the Rabbis, that commonly associate illness with sin and healing with forgiveness. Jews (according to E.P. Sanders) reject the New Testament suggestion that the healing would have been critical of, or criticized by, the Pharisees as no surviving Rabbinic source questions or criticizes this practice,[78] and the notion that Pharisees believed that "God alone" could forgive sins is more of a rhetorical device than historical fact.[79] Another argument from Sanders is that, according to the New Testament, Pharisees wanted to punish Jesus for healing a man's withered hand on Sabbath. Despite the Mishna and Gemara being replete with restrictions on healing on the Sabbath (for example, Mishna Shabbat, 22:6), E.P. Sanders stated that no Rabbinic rule has been found according to which Jesus would have violated Sabbath.[80]
Paula Frederiksen and Michael J. Cook believe that those passages of the New Testament that are seemingly most hostile to the Pharisees were written sometime after the destruction of Herod's Temple in 70 CE.[81][82] Only Christianity and Pharisaism survived the destruction of the Temple, and the two competed for a short time until the Pharisees emerged as the dominant form of Judaism [citation needed]. When many Jews did not convert, Christians sought new converts from among the Gentiles.[83]
Some scholars have found evidence of continuous interactions between Jewish-Christian and rabbinic movements from the mid to late second century to the fourth century.[84][85]
See also
- The Seekers after Smooth Things
- Tannaim
- Woes of the Pharisees
Footnotes
- ^ Roth, Cecil (1961). A History of the Jews. Schocken Books. p. 84. Retrieved 6 October 2018.
- ^ Sussman, Ayala; Peled, Ruth. "The Dead Sea Scrolls: History & Overview". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 6 October 2018.
- ^ Antiquities of the Jews, 17.42
- ^ Josephus, Flavius. The Antiquities of the Jews, 13.288.
- ^ Ber. 48b; Shab. 14b; Yoma 80a; Yeb. 16a; Nazir 53a; Ḥul. 137b; et al.
- ^ John 3:2
- ^ John 19:38
- ^ Acts 15:5
- ^ "Acts 22:3 Greek Text Analysis". biblehub.com.
- ^ Acts 5:39
- ^ "Acts 23:6 Greek Text Analysis". biblehub.com.
- ^ Philippians 3:5
- ^ Greek word #5330 in Strong's Concordance
- ISBN 965-220-093-X.
- ^ Hebrew word #6567 in Strong's Concordance
- ^ ISBN 9780664219116.
- ^ a b Dorot Ha'Rishonim
- .
- ^ Finkelstein, Louis (1929). "The Pharisees: Their Origin and Their Philosophy". Harvard Theological Review. 2: 223–231.
- ^ Harper, Douglas. "Persia". Online Etymology Dictionary.
- ^ Ant. 18.1
- ^ Walter Richard (1894). The Gospel According to Peter: A Study. Longmans, Green. p. 9. Retrieved 2022-04-02.
- ^ Neusner, Jacob (12 May 2016). "Jacob Neusner, 'The Rabbinic traditions about the Pharisees before 70'". Retrieved 6 October 2018.
- ^ Coogan, Michael D., ed. (1999). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford University Press. p. 350.
- ^ Jeremiah 52:28–30
- ^ See Nehemiah 8:1–18
- ISBN 978-1849018074. Retrieved 6 October 2018.
- .
- ^ Josephus, Antiquities, 13:5 § 9
- ^ Josephus, Antiquities, 13:10 § 6
- ISBN 0-8052-0009-6, p. 84
- ^ Baron, Salo Wittmayer (1956). Schwartz, Leo Walden (ed.). Great Ages and Ideas of the Jewish People. Random House. Retrieved 6 October 2018.
- ^ Babylonian Talmud tractate Bava Kamma Ch. 8
- ^ Encyclopaedia Judaica s.v. "Sadducees"
- ^ Ant. 13.288–296.
- ^ Nickelsburg, 93.
- ISBN 978-9004245143. Retrieved 6 October 2018.
- ^ Josephus, Jewish War 1:110
- ^ Sievers, 155
- ^ Josephus, Antiquities, 14:3 § 2
- ^ The History of the Second Temple Period, Paolo Sacchi, ch. 8 p. 269: "At this point, the majority of the city's inhabitants, pro-Pharisee and pro-Hyrcanus, decided to open the city's gates to the Romans. Only a small minority of Sadducees took refuge in the Temple and decided to hold out until the very end. This was Autumn 63 BCE. On this occasion Pompey broke into the Temple."
- ^ The Wars of the Jews, Flavius Josephus, Translated by William Whiston, A.M. Auburn and Buffalo John E. Beardsley, 1895, sections 142–150: "And now did many of the priests, even when they saw their enemies assailing them with swords in their hands, without any disturbance, go on with their Divine worship, and were slain while they were offering their drink-offerings, ... The greatest part of them were slain by their own countrymen, of the adverse faction, and an innumerable multitude threw themselves down precipices"
- ^ A History of the Jewish People, H.H. Ben-Sasson, p. 223: "Thus the independence of Hasmonean Judea came to an end;"
- ^ Josephus, Antiquities, 14:9 § 4; 15:1 § 1; 10 § 4; 11 §§ 5–6
- ^ Josephus, Antiquities, 17:2 § 4; 6 §§ 2–4
- ^ Josephus, Antiquities, 18:1, § 4
- ISBN 0802844987.
- ^ Talmud, Shabbat 31a
- ^ Acts 23.8
- ^ John Hick (Death & Eternal Life, 1994, p. 395) interprets Josephus to be most likely talking about resurrection, while Jason von Ehrenkrook ("The Afterlife in Philo and Josephus", in Heaven, Hell, and the Afterlife: Eternity in Judaism, ed. J. Harold Ellens; vol. 1, pp. 97–118) understands the passage to refer to reincarnation
- ^ Josephus Jewish War 2.8.14; cf. Antiquities 8.14–15.
- ^ Acta 23.6, 26.5.
- ISBN 978-1-4412-4200-6.
- ^ a b c d e Neusner, Jacob Invitation to the Talmud: a Teaching Book (1998)
- ^ Exodus 19:29–24; Deuteronomy 6:7, Deuteronomy 11:19; compare Deuteronomy 31:9; Jeremiah 2:8, Jeremiah 18:18
- ^ Leviticus 11; Deuteronomy 14:3–21
- ^ Deuteronomy 14:1–2, Leviticus 19:28; compare Leviticus 21:5
- ISBN 978-0-8028-4358-6.
- ISBN 978-0-9653517-5-1.
- ^ Josepheus. The Antiquities of the Jews. pp. 13.5.9.
- ISBN 1555408737.
- ^ Neusner, Jacob (1979). From Politics to Piety: the emergence of Pharisaic Judaism. KTAV. pp. 82–90.
- ^ See Zvi Hirsch Chajes The Students Guide through the Talmud Ch. 15 (English edition by Jacob Schacter
- ISBN 006068464X.
- ISBN 0060692006.
- Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
- ^ Matthew 3:1–7, Luke 7:28–30
- ^ Acts 5 merely reads: "33 When they heard this, they were furious and plotted to kill them. 34 Then one in the council stood up, a Pharisee named Gamaliel, a teacher of the law held in respect by all the people, and commanded them to put the apostles outside for a little while. 35 And he said to them: "Men of Israel, take heed to yourselves what you intend to do regarding these men. 36 For some time ago Theudas rose up, claiming to be somebody. A number of men, about four hundred, joined him. He was slain, and all who obeyed him were scattered and came to nothing. 37 After this man, Judas of Galilee rose up in the days of the census, and drew away many people after him. He also perished, and all who obeyed him were dispersed. 38 And now I say to you, keep away from these men and let them alone; for if this plan or this work is of men, it will come to nothing; 39 but if it is of God, you cannot overthrow it—lest you even be found to fight against God."" (New King James Version)
- ^ Apostle Paul as a Pharisee Acts 26:5 See also Acts 23:6, Philippians 3:5
- ^ Acts 15
- ^ "pharisee" The Free Dictionary
- ^ Michael Cook 2008 Modern Jews Engage the New Testament 279
- ^ H. Maccoby, 1986 The Mythmaker. Paul and the Invention of Christianity
- ^ Gregerman, Adam (2012-02-09). "It's 'Kosher' To Accept Real Jesus?". The Forward. Archived from the original on 2016-04-27. Retrieved 2023-03-10.
- ^ Mark 2:1–1
- ^ Mark 3:1–6
- ISBN 1565630106.
- ^ E.P. Sanders 1993 The Historical Figure of Jesus 213
- ISBN 0800620615.
- ^ E.P. Sanders 1993 The Historical Figure of Jesus 215
- ^ Paula Frederiksen, 1988 From Jesus to Christ: The Origins of the New Testament Images of Jesus
- ^ Michael J. Cook, 2008 Modern Jews Engage the New Testament
- ^ e.g., Romans 11:25
- ^ See for instance: Lily C. Vuong, Gender and Purity in the Protevangelium of James, Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 2.358 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2013), 210–213; Jonathan Bourgel, "The Holders of the "Word of Truth": The Pharisees in Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions 1.27–71," Journal of Early Christian Studies 25.2 (2017) 171–200.
- ^ Philippe Bobichon, "Autorités religieuses juives et 'sectes' juives dans l'œuvre de Justin Martyr", Revue des Études Augustiniennes 48/1 (2002), pp. 3–22 online; Philippe Bobichon, Dialogue avec Tryphon (Dialogue with Trypho), édition critique, Editions universitaires de Fribourg, 2003, Introduction, pp. 73–108 online
References
- Baron, Salo W. A Social and Religious History of the Jews Vol 2.
- Boccaccini, Gabriele 2002 Roots of Rabbinic Judaism ISBN 0-8028-4361-1
- Bruce, F.F., The Book of Acts, Revised Edition (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1988)
- Cohen, Shaye J.D. 1988 From the Maccabees to the Mishnah ISBN 0-664-25017-3
- Fredriksen, Paula 1988 From Jesus to Christ ISBN 0-300-04864-5
- Gowler, David B. 1991/2008 Host, Guest, Enemy, and Friend: Portraits of the Pharisees in Luke and Acts (Peter Lang, 1991; ppk, Wipf & Stock, 2008)
- Halevi, Yitzchak Isaac Dorot Ha'Rishonim (Heb.)
- Neusner, Jacob Torah From our Sages: Pirke Avot ISBN 0-940646-05-6
- Neusner, Jacob Invitation to the Talmud: a Teaching Book (1998) ISBN 1-59244-155-6
- Roth, Cecil A History of the Jews: From Earliest Times Through the Six Day War 1970 ISBN 0-8052-0009-6
- Schwartz, Leo, ed. Great Ages and Ideas of the Jewish People ISBN 0-394-60413-X
- Segal, Alan F. Rebecca's Children: Judaism and Christianity in the Roman World, ISBN 0-674-75076-4
- Sacchi, Paolo 2004 The History of the Second Temple Period, London [u.a.] : T & T Clark International, 2004, ISBN 9780567044501
External links
- Resources > Second Temple and Talmudic Era > Jewish Sects The Jewish History Resource Center – Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
- Jewish Encyclopedia: Pharisees
- Driscoll, James F. (1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. .
- New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
.
- Letchford, Roderick R., Pharisees, Jesus and the Kingdom (2001), Australian National University.
Further reading
- "The Jews Aren't to Blame for Jesus' Death, a Bible Scholar Asserts". Ofer Aderet for Haaretz. 28 September 2019. Retrieved 28 September 2019. Discussion of the book by Israel Knohl, The Messiah Controversy (מחלוקת המשיח): Who Are the Jews Waiting For? (Tel Aviv: Dvir Press, 2019, in Hebrew), supporting the thesis that the priests who sentenced Jesus to death were Sadducees, in a time where the majority of the Jews followed the beliefs of the Pharisees, who were close to the ideas preached by Jesus and would not have wanted his death.