Pharmacopoeia
A pharmacopoeia, pharmacopeia, or pharmacopoea (from the obsolete typography pharmacopœia, meaning "drug-making"), in its modern technical sense, is a book containing directions for the identification of compound
Descriptions of preparations are called
Etymology
The term derives from
In early modern editions ofHistory
Although older writings exist which deal with herbal medicine, the major initial work in the field is considered to be the Edwin Smith Papyrus in Egypt, Pliny's pharmacopoeia.[4]
A number of early pharmacopoeia books were written by
Pharmacopeial synopsis were recorded in the
China
The earliest extant Chinese pharmacopoeia, the
The earliest known officially sponsored pharmacopoeia was compiled in 659 AD by a team of 23 pharmaceutical scientists led by Su jing during the Tang dynasty (618-907 AD) and was called the Xinxiu bencao (Newly Revised Canon of Material Medical). The work consists of 20 volumes with one dedicated to the table of contents, and 25 volumes of pictures with one volume dedicated to the table of contents. A third part consisting of seven volumes contained illustrated descriptions. The text contains descriptions of 850 medicines with 114 new ones. The work was used throughout China for the next 400 years.[11]
City pharmacopoeia origins
A dated work appeared in
The term Pharmacopoeia first appears as a distinct title in a work[13] published at Basel, Switzerland, in 1561 by A. Foes, but does not appear to have come into general use until the beginning of the 17th century.[1]
Before 1542, the works principally used by apothecaries were the treatises on simples (basic medicinal ingredients) by Avicenna and Serapion; the De synonymis and Quid pro quo of Simon Januensis; the Liber servitoris of Bulchasim Ben Aberazerim, which described preparations made from plants, animals, and minerals, and was the type of the chemical portion of modern pharmacopoeias; and the Antidotarium of Nicolaus de Salerno, containing Galenic formulations arranged alphabetically. Of this last work, there were two editions in use — Nicolaus magnus and Nicolaus parvus: in the latter, several of the compounds described in the large edition were omitted and the formulae given on a smaller scale.[1]
Also
Nicolaes Tulp, mayor of Amsterdam and respected surgeon general, gathered all of his doctor and chemist friends together and they wrote the first pharmacopoeia of Amsterdam named Pharmacopoea Amstelredamensis in 1636. This was a combined effort to improve public health after an outbreak of the bubonic plague, and also to limit the number of quack apothecary shops in Amsterdam.
London
Until 1617, such drugs and medicines as were in common use were sold in England by the apothecaries and grocers. In that year the apothecaries obtained a separate charter, and it was enacted that no grocer should keep an apothecary's shop. The preparation of physicians' prescriptions was thus confined to the apothecaries, upon whom pressure was brought to bear to make them dispense accurately, by the issue of a pharmacopoeia in May 1618 by the College of Physicians, and by the power which the wardens of the apothecaries received in common with the censors of the College of Physicians of examining the shops of apothecaries within 7 m. of London and destroying all the compounds which they found unfaithfully prepared. This, the first authorized London Pharmacopoeia, was selected chiefly from the works of Mezue and Nicolaus de Salerno, but it was found to be so full of errors that the whole edition was cancelled, and a fresh edition was published in the following December.[1]
At this period the compounds employed in medicine were often heterogeneous mixtures, some of which contained from 20 to 70, or more, ingredients, while a large number of simples were used in consequence of the same substance being supposed to possess different qualities according to the source from which it was derived. Thus crabs' eyes (i.e., gastroliths), pearls, oyster shells, and coral were supposed to have different properties. Among other ingredients entering into some of these formulae were the excrements of human beings, dogs, mice, geese, and other animals, calculi, human skull, and moss growing on it, blind puppies, earthworms, etc.[1]
Although other editions of the London Pharmacopoeia were issued in 1621, 1632, 1639, and 1677, it was not until the edition of 1721, published under the auspices of Sir Hans Sloane, that any important alterations were made. In this issue many of the remedies previously in use were omitted, although a good number were still retained, such as dogs' excrement, earthworms, and moss from the human skull; the botanical names of herbal remedies were for the first time added to the official ones; the simple distilled waters were ordered of a uniform strength; sweetened spirits, cordials and ratafias were omitted as well as several compounds no longer used in London, although still in vogue elsewhere. A great improvement was effected in the edition published in 1746, in which only those preparations were retained which had received the approval of the majority of the pharmacopoeia committee; to these was added a list of those drugs only which were supposed to be the most efficacious. An attempt was made to simplify further the older formulae by the rejection of superfluous ingredients.[1]
In the edition published in 1788 the tendency to simplify was carried out to a much greater extent, and the extremely compound medicines which had formed the principal remedies of physicians for 2,000 years were discarded, while a few powerful drugs which had been considered too dangerous to be included in the Pharmacopoeia of 1765 were restored to their previous position. In 1809 the French chemical nomenclature was adopted, and in 1815 a corrected impression of the same was issued. Subsequent editions were published in 1824, 1836, and 1851.[1]
The first Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia was published in 1699 and the last in 1841; the first Dublin Pharmacopoeia in 1807 and the last in 1850.[1]
National pharmacopoeia origins
The preparations contained in these three pharmacopoeias were not all uniform in strength, a source of much inconvenience and danger to the public, when powerful preparations such as dilute
There are national and international pharmacopoeias, like the EU and the U.S. pharmacopoeias. The pharmacopeia in the EU is prepared by a governmental organization, and has a specified role in law in the EU. In the U.S., the USP-NF (United States Pharmacopeia – National Formulary) has been issued by a private non-profit organization since 1820 under the authority of a Convention that meets periodically that is largely constituted by physicians, pharmacists, and other public health professionals, setting standards published in the compendia through various Expert Committees.[23] In the U.S. when there is an applicable USP-NF quality monograph, drugs and drug ingredients must conform to the compendial requirements (such as for strength, quality or purity) or be deemed adulterated or misbranded under the Federal food and drug laws.[24]
Supranational and international harmonization
The
Medical preparations, uses, and dosages
The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with the United Kingdom and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (March 2012) |
Though formerly printed there has been a transition to a situation where pharmaceutical information is available as printed volumes and on the internet. The rapid increase in knowledge renders necessary frequent new editions, to furnish definite formulae for preparations that have already come into extensive use in medical practice, so as to ensure uniformity of strength, and to give the characters and tests by which their purity and potency may be determined. However each new edition requires several years to carry out numerous experiments for devising suitable formulae, so that current pharmacopoeia are never quite up to date.[1]
This difficulty has hitherto been met by the publication of such non-official formularies as Squire's Companion to the Pharmacopoeia and
The change occurred with the fourth edition of the British Pharmacopoeia in 1898. A committee of the Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain was appointed at the request of the General Medical Council to advise on pharmaceutical matters. A census of prescriptions was taken to ascertain the relative frequency with which different preparations and drugs were used in prescriptions, and suggestions and criticisms were sought from various medical and pharmaceutical bodies across the British Empire. As regards the purely pharmaceutical part of the work a committee of reference in pharmacy, nominated by the pharmaceutical societies of Great Britain and Ireland (as they were then), was appointed to report to the Pharmacopoeia Committee of the Medical Council.[1]
Some difficulty has arisen since the passing of the Adulteration of Food and Drugs Act concerning the use of the Pharmacopoeia as a legal standard for the drugs and preparations contained in it. The Pharmacopoeia is defined in the preface as only "intended to afford to the members of the medical profession and those engaged in the preparation of medicines throughout the British Empire one uniform standard and guide whereby the nature and composition of, substances to be used in medicine may be ascertained and determined". It cannot be an encyclopaedia of substances used in medicine, and can be used only as a standard for the substances and preparations contained in it, and for no others. It has been held in the Divisional Courts (Dickins v. Randerson) that the Pharmacopoeia is a standard for official preparations asked for under their pharmacopoeial name. But there are many substances in the Pharmacopoeia which are not only employed in medicine, but have other uses, such as
An important step has also been taken in this direction by the publication under the authority of the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain of the British Pharmaceutical Codex (BPC), in which the characters of and tests for the purity of many unofficial drugs and preparations are given as well as the character of many glandular preparations and antitoxins that have come into use in medicine, but have not yet been introduced into the Pharmacopoeia. This work may also possibly serve as a standard under the Adulteration of Food and Drugs Act for the purity and strength of drugs not included in the Pharmacopoeia and as a standard for the commercial grade of purity of those in the Pharmacopoeia which are used for non-medical purposes.[1]
Another legal difficulty connected with modern pharmacopoeias is the inclusion in some of them of synthetic chemical remedies, the processes for preparing which have been patented, whilst the substances are sold under trade-mark names. The scientific chemical name is often long and unwieldy, and the physician prefers when writing a prescription to use the shorter name under which it is sold by the patentees. In this case the pharmacist is compelled to use the more expensive patented article, which may lead to complaints from the patient. If the physician were to use the same article under its pharmacopoeial name when the patented article is prescribed, they would become open to prosecution by the patentee for infringement of patent rights. Hence the only solution is for the physician to use the chemical name (which cannot be patented) as given in the Pharmacopoeia, or, for those synthetic remedies not included in the Pharmacopoeia, the scientific and chemical name given in the British Pharmaceutical Codex.[1]
List of national and supranational pharmacopoeias
In most of the Neo-Latin names, Pharmacopoea is the more common spelling, although for several of them, Pharmacopoeia is common.
INN system symbol | Other symbols (including older INN system symbol) | English-language title | Latin-language title | Other-language title | Active or retired | Website | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
— | — | Brazilian Pharmacopoeia | — | Farmacopeia Brasileira | Active | ANVISA | |
BP | Ph.B., Ph.Br. | British Pharmacopoeia | Pharmacopoea Britannica | — | Active | BP | |
BPC | — | British Pharmaceutical Codex | — | — | Retired | — | "BPC" also often stands for "British Pharmacopoeia Commission" |
ChP | PPRC | Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China (Chinese Pharmacopoeia) | Pharmacopoea Sinensis | 中华人民共和国药典 | Active | PPRC Archived 27 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine | |
CSL | CSP, Ph.Bs. | Czechoslovak Pharmacopoeia | Pharmacopoea Bohemoslovenica | Československý Lékopis | Retired | ||
Ph.Boh. | Czech Pharmacopoeia | Pharmacopoea Bohemica | Český Lékopis | Active | Ph.Boh. | ||
Slovak Pharmacopoeia | Pharmacopoea Slovaca | Slovenský Liekopis | Active | ||||
Ph.Eur. | EP | European Pharmacopoeia | Pharmacopoea Europaea | — | Active | Ph.Eur. | |
Ph.Fr. | — | French Pharmacopoeia | — | Pharmacopée Française | Active | Ph.Fr. | The name Pharmacopoea Gallica (Ph.Gall.) has not been used since the early 20th century |
DAB | — | German Pharmacopoeia | — | Deutsches Arzneibuch | Active | The name Pharmacopoea Germanica (Ph.G.) has not been used since the early 20th century | |
Ph.Hg. | — | Hungarian Pharmacopoeia | Pharmacopoea Hungarica | Magyar gyógyszerkönyv | Active | ||
IP | INDP, Ph.Ind. | Indian Pharmacopoeia | Pharmacopoea Indica | — | Active | IP | |
FI | Indonesian Pharmacopoeia | Pharmacopoea Indonesia | Farmakope Indonesia | Active | FI | ||
Ph.Int. | IP, Ph.I. | International Pharmacopoeia | Pharmacopoea Internationalis | — | Active | Ph.Int. | |
F.U. | — | Official Pharmacopoeia of the Italian Republic | — | Farmacopea Ufficiale | Active | F.U. | |
JP | — | Japanese Pharmacopoeia | Pharmacopoea | 日本薬局方 | Active | JP | |
JRA | — | Minimum Requirements for Antibiotic Products of Japan | — | Active | |||
FEUM | MXP | Pharmacopoeia of the United Mexican States (Mexican Pharmacopoeia) | — | Farmacopea de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos | Active | FEUM | |
FP | — | Portuguese Pharmacopoeia | Pharmacopoea Lusitanica | Farmacopeia Portuguesa | Active | FP | |
Ph.Helv. | — | Swiss Pharmacopoeia | Pharmacopoea Helvetica | Schweizerischen Pharmakopöe, Schweizerischen Arzneibuch | Active | Ph.Helv. Archived 9 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine | |
KP | Korean Pharmacopeia | — | 대한민국약전 | Active | KP / KP | ||
KHP | Korean Herbal Pharmacopeia | — | 대한민국약전외한약(생약)규격집 | Active | KHP | ||
USP | — | United States Pharmacopeia | — | — | Active | USP | |
USSRP | — | State Pharmacopoeia of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soviet Pharmacopoeia) | — | Retired | |||
SPRF | — | The State Pharmacopoeia of the Russian Federation | — | Государственная Фармакопея Российской Федерации | Active | SPRF | |
YP | Ph.Jug. | Yugoslav Pharmacopoeia | Pharmacopoea Jugoslavica | Retired | |||
RFE | — | Royal Spanish Pharmacopoeia | — | Real Farmacopea Española | Active | RFE |
See also
- British Pharmacopoeia
- Erowid
- European Pharmacopoeia
- International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use(ICH)
- International Pharmaceutical Federation
- International Plant Names Index
- Japanese Pharmacopoeia
- Iranian National Formulary
- National Formulary
- Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China
- Specification
- Standards organization
- The International Pharmacopoeia
- United States Pharmacopeia
- World Health Organization
- Hamilton's Pharmacopeia
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q public domain: Holmes, Edward Morell (1911). "Pharmacopoeia". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 353–355. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
- ^ Harper, Douglas. "pharmacopeia". Online Etymology Dictionary.
- Perseus Project.
- PMID 18604277.
- ISBN 0-911119-43-4).
- S2CID 162374182.
- ^ "Classics of Traditional Medicine".
- ^ Djian, Jean-Michel (24 May 2007). Timbuktu manuscripts: Africa's written history unveiled Archived 11 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Unesco, ID 37896.
- ^ Lu 2015, p. 63.
- ^ Lu 2015, p. 110.
- ^ "The first pharmacopoeia -- Xinxiu Bencao".
- ^ "Museu Virtual - Universitat de Barcelona". www.ub.edu.
- ^ Foes, A (1561). Pharmacopœia medicamentorum omnium, quæ hodie ... officinis extant, etc. Basel.
- ^ Michael Servetus Research Archived 13 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine Website with graphical study on the pharmacopoeia Dispensarium by Servetus
- ^ 1998 "The 'Dispensarium' or 'Enquiridion' the complementary work of the Dioscorides, both by Servetus" and "The book of work of Michael Servetus for his Dioscorides and his 'Dispensarium'". González Echeverría, Francisco Javier. Program of the congress and abstracts of the communications, XI National Congress on History of Medicine, Santiago de Compostela, University of Santiago de Compostela, pp. 83-84.
- ^ a b 1998 "The book of work of Michael Servetus for his Dioscorides and his Dispensarium"(Le livre de travail de Michel Servet pour ses Dioscorides et Dispensarium) and "The Dispensarium or Enquiridion, complementary of the Dioscorides of Michael Servetus" ( The Enquiridion, L’oeuvre Le Dispensarium ou Enquiridion complémentaire sur le Dioscorides de Michel Servet) González Echeverría, in: Book of summaries, 36th International Congress on the History of Medicine, Tunis (Livre des Résumés, 36ème Congrès International d’Histoire de la médicine, Tunis), 6–11 September 1998, (two comunicacions), pp. 199, 210.
- ^ 2011 "The love for truth. Life and work of Michael Servetus", (El amor a la verdad. Vida y obra de Miguel Servet.), Francisco Javier González Echeverría, Francisco Javier, printed by Navarro y Navarro, Zaragoza, collaboration with the Government of Navarra, Department of Institutional Relations and Education of the Government of Navarra, 607 pp, 64 of them illustrations.pag 194-204
- ^ 1996 " An unpublished work of Michael Servetus : The Dioscorides or Medical Matter from Sesma". González Echeverría, Francisco Javier. Panacea Ed. College of Doctors of Navarra. Castuera Ed, Pamplona p.44.
- ^ 1996 "Sesma's Dioscorides or Medical Matter : an unknown work of Michael Servetus (I)" and " Sesma's Dioscorides or Medical Matter: an unknown work of Michael Servetus (II)" González Echeverría, Francisco Javier. In : Book of Abstracts. 35th International Congress on the History of Medicine, 2nd-8th, September, 1996, Kos Island, Greece, communications nº: 6 y 7, p. 4.
- ^ 1997 "Michael Servetus, editor of the Dioscorides", González Echeverría, Francisco Javier. Institute of Sijenienses Studies "Michael Servetus" ed, Villanueva de Sijena, Larrosa ed and "Ibercaja", Zaragoza.
- ^ 2001 " An attributable Spanish work to Michael Servetus: 'The Dioscorides of Sesma' ". González Echeverría, Francisco Javier. Varia Histórico- Médica. Edition coordinated by : Jesús Castellanos Guerrero (coord.), Isabel Jiménez Lucena, María José Ruiz Somavilla y Pilar Gardeta Sabater. Minutes from the X Congress on History of Medicine, February 1986, Málaga. Printed by Imagraf, Málaga, pp. 37-55.
- ^ 2011 September 9, Francisco González Echeverría VI International Meeting for the History of Medicine, (S-11: Biographies in History of Medicine (I)), Barcelona.New Discoveries on the biography of Michael De Villeneuve (Michael Servetus) & New discoverys on the work of Michael De Villeneuve (Michael Servetus) VI Meeting of the International Society for the History of Medicine
- ^ "Our Impact". Archived from the original on 5 January 2015. Retrieved 5 January 2015.
- ^ "USP in Food and Drug Law - U.S. Pharmacopeial Convention". usp.org. Retrieved 18 January 2017.
- ^ "ICH Official web site : ICH". ich.org. Retrieved 18 January 2017.
Bibliography
- Lu, Yongxiang (2015), A History of Chinese Science and Technology 2
External links
- Pharmacopoeial Discussion Group Archived 23 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine
- Medicines Compendium (archived 3 July 2012)
- Pharma Knowledge Park Archived 2 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- Michael Servetus Research Website with graphical study of the pharmacopoeia Dispensarium by Michael Servetus (archived 13 November 2012)
- ISHP Working Group History of Pharmacopieas