Phoenix (spacecraft)
martian sols (actual)1 year, 2 months, 29 days (launch to last contact) | |||||||||||||||||
Spacecraft properties | |||||||||||||||||
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Manufacturer | NiH2 battery | ||||||||||||||||
Start of mission | |||||||||||||||||
Launch date | August 4, 2007 Lockheed Martin Space Systems | 09:26 ||||||||||||||||
End of mission | |||||||||||||||||
Declared | May 24, 2010 | ||||||||||||||||
Last contact | November 2, 2008 (15 years, 5 months and 13 days ago) | ||||||||||||||||
Landing site | Green Valley, Vastitas Borealis, Mars 68°13′08″N 125°44′57″W / 68.2188°N 125.7492°W | ||||||||||||||||
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Phoenix Mars Lander mission logo Mars Scout Program → |
Phoenix was an uncrewed space probe that landed on the surface of
The multi-agency program was led by the
Phoenix was NASA's sixth successful landing on Mars, from seven attempts, and the first in Mars' polar region. The lander completed its mission in August 2008, and made a last brief communication with Earth on November 2 as available
Mission overview
The mission had two goals. One was to study the
The primary mission was anticipated to last 90 sols (Martian days)—just over 92 Earth days. However, the craft exceeded its expected operational lifetime[8] by a little over two months before succumbing to the increasing cold and dark of an advancing Martian winter.[6] Researchers had hoped that the lander would survive into the Martian winter so that it could witness polar ice developing around it – perhaps up to 1 meter (3 ft) of solid carbon dioxide ice could have appeared. Even had it survived some of the winter, the intense cold would have prevented it from lasting all the way through.[9] The mission was chosen to be a fixed lander rather than a rover because:[10]
- costs were reduced through reuse of earlier equipment (though this claim is disputed by some observers[11]);
- the area of Mars where Phoenix landed is thought to be relatively uniform, thus traveling on the surface is of less value; and
- the weight budgetneeded for mobility could instead be used for more and better scientific instruments.
The 2003–2004 observations of
History
While the proposal for Phoenix was being written, the
Phoenix was a partnership of universities, NASA centers, and the aerospace industry. The science instruments and operations were a
On June 2, 2005, following a critical review of the project's planning progress and preliminary design, NASA approved the mission to proceed as planned.[24] The purpose of the review was to confirm NASA's confidence in the mission.
Specifications
- Launched mass
- 670 kg (1,480 lb) Includes Lander, Aeroshell (backshell and heatshield), parachutes, cruise stage.[1]
- Lander Mass
- 350 kg (770 lb)
- Lander Dimensions
- About 5.5 m (18 ft) long with the solar panels deployed. The science deck by itself is about 1.5 m (4.9 ft) in diameter. From the ground to the top of the MET mast, the lander measures about 2.2 m (7.2 ft) tall.
- Communications
- Proximity-1 protocol.[25]
- Power
- Power for the cruise phase is generated using two A·h.[26]
Lander systems include a
Scientific payload
Phoenix carried improved versions of University of Arizona panoramic cameras and volatiles-analysis instrument from the ill-fated
During EDL, the Atmospheric Structure Experiment was conducted. This used accelerometer and gyroscope data recorded during the lander's descent through the atmosphere to create a vertical profile of the temperature, pressure, and density of the atmosphere above the landing site, at that point in time.[29]
Robotic arm and camera
The robotic arm was designed to extend 2.35 m (7.7 ft) from its base on the lander, and had the ability to dig down to 0.5 m (1.6 ft) below a sandy surface. It took samples of dirt and ice that were analyzed by other instruments on the lander. The arm was designed and built for the Jet Propulsion Laboratory by Alliance Spacesystems, LLC[30] (now MDA US Systems, LLC) in Pasadena, California. A rotating rasp-tool located in the heel of the scoop was used to cut into the strong permafrost. Cuttings from the rasp were ejected into the heel of the scoop and transferred to the front for delivery to the instruments. The rasp tool was conceived of at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The flight version of the rasp was designed and built by HoneyBee Robotics. Commands were sent for the arm to be deployed on May 28, 2008, beginning with the pushing aside of a protective covering intended to serve as a redundant precaution against potential contamination of Martian soil by Earthly life-forms. The Robotic Arm Camera (RAC) attached to the robotic arm just above the scoop was able to take full-color pictures of the area, as well as verify the samples that the scoop returned, and examined the grains of the area where the robotic arm had just dug. The camera was made by the University of Arizona and Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research,[31] Germany.[32]
Surface stereo imager
The Surface Stereo Imager (SSI) was the primary camera on the lander. It is a
Thermal and evolved gas analyzer
The
On May 29, 2008 (sol 4), electrical tests indicated an intermittent short circuit in TEGA,[37] resulting from a glitch in one of the two filaments responsible for ionizing volatiles.[38] NASA worked around the problem by configuring the backup filament as the primary and vice versa.[39]
In early June, first attempts to get soil into TEGA were unsuccessful as it seemed too "cloddy" for the screens.[40][41]
On June 11 the first of the eight ovens was filled with a soil sample after several tries to get the soil sample through the screen of TEGA.[
Mars Descent Imager
The Mars Descent Imager (MARDI) was intended to take pictures of the landing site during the last three minutes of descent. As originally planned, it would have begun taking pictures after the aeroshell departed, about 8 km (5.0 mi) above the Martian soil.[citation needed]
Before launch, testing of the assembled spacecraft uncovered a potential data corruption problem with an interface card that was designed to route MARDI image data as well as data from various other parts of the spacecraft. The potential problem could occur if the interface card were to receive a MARDI picture during a critical phase of the spacecraft's final descent, at which point data from the spacecraft's
MARDI images had been intended to help pinpoint exactly where the lander landed, and possibly help find potential science targets. It was also to be used to learn if the area where the lander lands is typical of the surrounding terrain. MARDI was built by
Microscopy, electrochemistry, and conductivity analyzer
The Microscopy, Electrochemistry, and Conductivity Analyzer (MECA) is an instrument package originally designed for the canceled
Using MECA, researchers examined soil particles as small as 16
Sample wheel and translation stage
This instrument presents 6 of 69 sample holders to an opening in the MECA instrument to which the robotic arm delivers the samples and then brings the samples to the optical microscope and the atomic force microscope.[48] Imperial College London provided the microscope sample substrates.[49]
Optical microscope
The
Atomic force microscope
The
Wet Chemistry Laboratory (WCL)
The wet chemistry lab (WCL) sensor assembly and leaching solution were designed and built by Thermo Fisher Scientific.[50] The WCL actuator assembly was designed and built by Starsys Research in Boulder, Colorado. Tufts University developed the reagent pellets, barium ISE, and ASV electrodes, and performed the preflight characterization of the sensor array.[51]
The robotic arm scooped up some soil and put it in one of four wet chemistry lab cells, where water was added, and, while stirring, an array of electrochemical sensors measured a dozen dissolved ions such as sodium, magnesium, calcium, and sulfate that leached out from the soil into the water. This provided information on the biological compatibility of the soil, both for possible indigenous microbes and for possible future Earth visitors.[52]
All of the four wet chemistry labs were identical, each containing 26 chemical sensors and a temperature sensor. The polymer Ion Selective Electrodes (ISE) were able to determine the concentration of ions by measuring the change in electric potential across their ion-selective membranes as a function of concentration.
Thermal and Electrical Conductivity Probe (TECP)
The MECA contains a Thermal and Electrical Conductivity Probe (TECP).
Three of the four probes have tiny heating elements and temperature sensors inside them. One probe uses internal heating elements to send out a pulse of heat, recording the time the pulse is sent and monitoring the rate at which the heat is dissipated away from the probe. Adjacent needles sense when the heat pulse arrives. The speed that the heat travels away from the probe as well as the speed that it travels between probes allows scientists to measure thermal conductivity, specific heat (the ability of the regolith to conduct heat relative to its ability to store heat) and thermal diffusivity (the speed at which a thermal disturbance is propagated in the soil).[54]
The probes also measured the
The TECP humidity sensor is a relative humidity sensor, so it must be coupled with a temperature sensor in order to measure absolute humidity. Both the relative humidity sensor and a temperature sensor are attached directly to the circuit board of the TECP and are, therefore, assumed to be at the same temperature.[54]
Meteorological station
The Meteorological Station (MET) recorded the daily
The surface wind velocity, pressure, and temperature were also monitored over the mission (from the tell-tale, pressure, and temperature sensors) and show the evolution of the atmosphere with time. To measure dust and ice contribution to the atmosphere, a lidar was employed. The lidar collected information about the time-dependent structure of the planetary boundary layer by investigating the vertical distribution of dust, ice, fog, and clouds in the local atmosphere.[citation needed]
There are three temperature sensors (thermocouples) on a 1 m (3.3 ft) vertical mast (shown in its stowed position) at heights of approximately 250, 500 and 1,000 mm (9.8, 19.7 and 39.4 in) above the lander deck. The sensors were referenced to a measurement of absolute temperature at the base of the mast. A pressure sensor built by Finnish Meteorological Institute is located in the Payload Electronics Box, which sits on the surface of the deck, and houses the acquisition electronics for the MET payload. The Pressure and Temperature sensors commenced operations on Sol 0 (May 26, 2008) and operated continuously, sampling once every 2 seconds.[citation needed]
The Telltale is a joint Canadian/Danish instrument (right) which provides a coarse estimate of wind speed and direction. The speed is based on the amount of deflection from vertical that is observed, while the wind direction is provided by which way this deflection occurs. A mirror, located under the telltale, and a calibration "cross," above (as observed through the mirror) are employed to increase the accuracy of the measurement. Either camera, SSI or RAC, could make this measurement, though the former was typically used. Periodic observations both day and night aid in understanding the diurnal variability of wind at the Phoenix landing site.[citation needed]
The wind speeds ranged from 11 to 58 km/h (6.8 to 36.0 mph). The usual average speed was 36 km/h (22 mph).[62]
The vertical-pointing lidar was capable of detecting multiple types of
The Phoenix lidar's laser was a passive
The lidar was operated for the first time at noon on Sol 3 (May 29, 2008), recording the first surface extraterrestrial atmospheric profile. This first profile indicated well-mixed dust in the first few kilometers of the atmosphere of Mars, where the planetary boundary layer was observed by a marked decrease in scattering signal. The contour plot (right) shows the amount of dust as a function of time and altitude, with warmer colors (red, orange) indicating more dust, and cooler colors (blue, green), indicating less dust. There is also an instrumentation effect of the laser warming up, causing the appearance of dust increasing with time. A layer at 3.5 km (2.2 mi) can be observed in the plot, which could be extra dust, or—less likely, given the time of sol this was acquired—a low altitude ice cloud.[citation needed]
The image on the left shows the lidar laser operating on the surface of Mars, as observed by the SSI looking straight up; the laser beam is the nearly-vertical line just right of center. Overhead dust can be seen both moving in the background, as well as passing through the laser beam in the form of bright sparkles.[65] The fact that the beam appears to terminate is the result of the extremely small angle at which the SSI is observing the laser—it sees farther up along the beam's path than there is dust to reflect the light back down to it.[citation needed]
The laser device discovered snow falling from clouds; this was not known to occur before the mission.[66] It was also determined that cirrus clouds formed in the area.[67]
Mission highlights
Launch
Phoenix was launched on August 4, 2007, at 5:26:34 a.m.
A noctilucent cloud was created by the exhaust gas from the Delta II 7925 rocket used to launch Phoenix.[69] The colors in the cloud formed from the prism-like effect of the ice particles present in the exhaust trail.
Cruise
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Entry, descent, and landing
The Jet Propulsion Laboratory made adjustments to the orbits of its two active satellites around Mars, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and Mars Odyssey, and the European Space Agency similarly adjusted the orbit of its Mars Express spacecraft to be in the right place on May 25, 2008, to observe Phoenix as it entered the atmosphere and then landed on the surface. This information helps designers to improve future landers.[70] The projected landing area was an ellipse 100 by 20 km (62 by 12 mi) covering terrain which has been informally named "Green Valley"[71] and contains the largest concentration of water ice outside the poles.
Phoenix entered the Martian atmosphere at nearly 21,000 km/h (13,000 mph), and within 7 minutes had decreased its speed to 8 km/h (5.0 mph) before touching down on the surface. Confirmation of atmospheric entry was received at 4:46 p.m.
For unknown reasons, the parachute was deployed about 7 seconds later than expected, leading to a landing position some 25–28 km (16–17 mi) east, near the edge of the predicted 99%
Phoenix landed in the Green Valley of Vastitas Borealis on May 25, 2008,[78] in the late Martian northern hemisphere spring (Ls=76.73), where the Sun shone on its solar panels the whole Martian day.[79] By the Martian northern Summer solstice (June 25, 2008), the Sun appeared at its maximum elevation of 47.0 degrees. Phoenix experienced its first sunset at the start of September 2008.[79]
The landing was made on a flat surface, with the lander reporting only 0.3 degrees of tilt. Just before landing, the craft used its thrusters to orient its solar panels along an east–west axis to maximize power generation. The lander waited 15 minutes before opening its solar panels, to allow dust to settle. The first images from the lander became available around 7:00 p.m. PDT (2008-05-26 02:00 UTC).[80] The images show a surface strewn with pebbles and incised with small troughs into polygons about 5 m (16 ft) across and 10 cm (3.9 in) high, with the expected absence of large rocks and hills.
Like the 1970s era
Surface mission
Communications from the surface
The robotic arm's first movement was delayed by one day when, on May 27, 2008, commands from Earth were not relayed to the Phoenix lander on Mars. The commands went to NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter as planned, but the orbiter's Electra UHF radio system for relaying commands to Phoenix temporarily shut off. Without new commands, the lander instead carried out a set of backup activities. On May 27 the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter relayed images and other information from those activities back to Earth.
The robotic arm was a critical part of the Phoenix Mars mission. On May 28, scientists leading the mission sent commands to unstow its robotic arm and take more images of its landing site. The images revealed that the spacecraft landed where it had access to digging down a polygon across the trough and digging into its center.[84]
The lander's robotic arm touched soil on Mars for the first time on May 31, 2008 (sol 6). It scooped dirt and started sampling the Martian soil for ice after days of testing its systems.[85]
Presence of shallow subsurface water ice
The polygonal cracking at the landing zone had previously been observed from orbit, and is similar to patterns seen in permafrost areas in polar and high altitude regions of Earth.[86] Phoenix's robotic arm camera took an image underneath the lander on sol 5 that shows patches of a smooth bright surface uncovered when thruster exhaust blew off overlying loose soil.[87] It was later shown to be water ice.[88][89]
On June 19, 2008 (sol 24), NASA announced that
On July 31, 2008 (sol 65), NASA announced that Phoenix confirmed the presence of water ice on Mars, as predicted in 2002 by the
With Phoenix in good working order, NASA announced operational funding through September 30, 2008 (sol 125). The science team worked to determine whether the water ice ever thaws enough to be available for life processes and if carbon-containing chemicals and other raw materials for life are present.
Additionally during 2008 and early 2009 a debate emerged within NASA over the presence of 'blobs' which appeared on photos of the vehicle's landing struts, which have been variously described as being either water droplets or 'clumps of frost'.[96] Due to the lack of consensus within the Phoenix science project, the issue had not been raised in any NASA news conferences.[96]
One scientist thought that the lander's thrusters splashed a pocket of brine from just below the Martian surface onto the landing strut during the vehicle's landing. The salts would then have absorbed water vapor from the air, which would have explained how they appeared to grow in size during the first 44 sols (Martian days) before slowly evaporating as Mars temperature dropped.[96]
-
The first two trenches dug by Phoenix in Martian soil. The trench on the right, informally called "Baby Bear", is the source of the first samples delivered to the onboard TEGA and the optical microscope for analysis.
-
Clumps of bright material in the enlarged "Dodo-Goldilocks" trench vanished over the course of four days, implying that they were composed of ice whichsublimated following exposure.[90]
-
Color versions of the photos showing ice sublimation, with the lower left corner of the trench enlarged in the insets in the upper right of the images.
Wet chemistry
On June 24, 2008 (sol 29), NASA's scientists launched a series of scientific tests. The robotic arm scooped up more soil and delivered it to 3 different on-board analyzers: an oven that baked it and tested the emitted gases, a microscopic imager, and a wet chemistry laboratory (WCL).[97] The lander's robotic arm scoop was positioned over the Wet Chemistry Lab delivery funnel on Sol 29 (the 29th Martian day after landing, i.e. June 24, 2008). The soil was transferred to the instrument on sol 30 (June 25, 2008), and Phoenix performed the first wet chemistry tests. On Sol 31 (June 26, 2008) Phoenix returned the wet chemistry test results with information on the salts in the soil, and its acidity. The wet chemistry lab (WCL)[98] was part of the suite of tools called the Microscopy, Electrochemistry and Conductivity Analyzer (MECA).[99]
-
Phoenix footpad image, taken over 15 minutes after landing to ensure any dust stirred up had settled.
-
One of the first surface images from Phoenix.
-
View underneath lander towards south foot pad, showing patchy exposures of a bright surface, possibly ice.[88]
A 360-degree panorama assembled from images taken on
End of the mission
The solar-powered lander operated two months longer than its three-month prime mission. The lander was designed to last 90 days, and had been running on bonus time since the successful end of its primary mission in August 2008.
On November 10, Phoenix Mission Control reported the loss of contact with the Phoenix lander; the last signal was received on November 2.[103] The demise of the craft occurred as a result of a dust storm that reduced power generation even further.[104] While the spacecraft's work ended, the analysis of data from the instruments was in its earliest stages.
Communication attempts 2010
Though it was not designed to survive the frigid Martian winter, the spacecraft's
Scientists attempted to make contact with Phoenix starting January 18, 2010 (sol -835), but were unsuccessful. Further attempts in February and April also failed to pick up any signal from the lander.[105][106][109][110] Project manager Barry Goldstein announced on May 24, 2010, that the project was being formally ended. Images from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter showed that its solar panels were apparently irretrievably damaged by freezing during the Martian winter.[111][112]
Results of the mission
Landscape
Unlike some other places visited on Mars with landers (
Weather
Snow was observed to fall from cirrus clouds. The clouds formed at a level in the atmosphere that was around −65 °C (−85 °F), so the clouds would have to be composed of water-ice, rather than carbon dioxide-ice (dry ice) because, at the low pressure of the Martian atmosphere, the temperature for forming carbon dioxide ice is much lower—less than −120 °C (−184 °F). It is now thought that water ice (snow) would have accumulated later in the year at this location.[114] This represents a milestone in understanding Martian weather. Wind speeds ranged from 11 to 58 km/h (6.8 to 36.0 mph). The usual average speed was 36 km/h (22 mph). These speeds seem high, but the atmosphere of Mars is very thin—less than 1% of the Earth's—and so did not exert much force on the spacecraft. The highest temperature measured during the mission was −19.6 °C (−3.3 °F), while the coldest was −97.7 °C (−143.9 °F).[62]
Climate cycles
Interpretation of the data transmitted from the craft was published in the journal Science. As per the peer reviewed data the presence of water ice has been confirmed and that the site had a wetter and warmer climate in the recent past. Finding calcium carbonate in the Martian soil leads scientists to think that the site had been wet or damp in the geological past. During seasonal or longer period diurnal cycles water may have been present as thin films. The tilt or obliquity of Mars changes far more than the Earth; hence times of higher humidity are probable.[115]
Surface chemistry
Chemistry results showed the surface soil to be moderately alkaline, with a pH of 7.7 ±0.5.[53][116] The overall level of salinity is modest. TEGA analysis of its first soil sample indicated the presence of bound water and CO2 that were released during the final (highest-temperature, 1,000 °C) heating cycle.[117]
The elements detected and measured in the samples are chloride, bicarbonate, magnesium, sodium, potassium, calcium, and sulfate.[116] Further data analysis indicated that the soil contains soluble sulfate (SO42-) at a minimum of 1.1% and provided a refined formulation of the soil.[116]
Analysis of the Phoenix WCL also showed that the Ca(ClO4)2 in the soil has not interacted with liquid water of any form, perhaps for as long as 600 million years. If it had, the highly soluble Ca(ClO4)2 in contact with liquid water would have formed only CaSO4. This suggests a severely arid environment, with minimal or no liquid water interaction.[118] The pH and salinity level were viewed as benign from the standpoint of biology.
- Perchlorate
On August 1, 2008, Aviation Week reported that "The White House has been alerted by NASA about plans to make an announcement soon on major new Phoenix lander discoveries concerning the "potential for life" on Mars, scientists tell Aviation Week & Space Technology."[119] This led to a subdued media speculation on whether some evidence of past or present life had been discovered.[120][121][122] To quell the speculation, NASA released the preliminary findings stating that Mars soil contains perchlorate (ClO
4) and thus may not be as life-friendly as thought earlier.[123][124] The presence of almost 0.5% perchlorates in the soil was an unexpected finding with broad implications.[98]
Laboratory research published in July 2017 demonstrated that when irradiated with a simulated Martian UV flux, perchlorates become bacteriocidal.[125] Two other compounds of the Martian surface, iron oxides and hydrogen peroxide, act in synergy with irradiated perchlorates to cause a 10.8-fold increase in cell death when compared to cells exposed to UV radiation after 60 seconds of exposure.[125] It was also found that abraded silicates (quartz and basalt) lead to the formation of toxic reactive oxygen species.[126] The results leaves the question of the presence of organic compounds open-ended since heating the samples containing perchlorate would have broken down any organics present.[127] However, in the cold subsurface of Mars, which provides substantial protection against UV radiation, halotolerant organisms might survive enhanced perchlorate concentrations by physiological adaptations similar to those observed in the yeast Debaryomyces hansenii exposed in lab experiments to increasing NaClO4 concentrations.[128]
Phoenix DVD
Attached to the deck of the lander (next to the US flag) is a special DVD compiled by
The text just below the center of the disk reads:
This archive, provided to the NASA Phoenix mission by The Planetary Society, contains literature and art (Visions of Mars), greetings from Mars visionaries of our day, and names of 21st century Earthlings who wanted to send their names to Mars. This DVD-ROM is designed to be read on personal computers in 2007. Information is stored in a spiral groove on the disc. A laser beam can scan the groove when metallized or a microscope can be used. Very small bumps and holes represent the zeroes and ones of digital information. The groove is about 0.74 micrometres wide. For more information refer to the standards document ECMA-268 (80 mm DVD Read-Only Disk).[135]
A previous CD version was supposed to have been sent with the Russian spacecraft Mars 94, intended to land on Mars in Fall 1995.[136]
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