Phrygians
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The Phrygians (Greek: Φρύγες, Phruges or Phryges) were an ancient Indo-European speaking people who inhabited central-western Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) in antiquity.
Ancient Greek authors used "Phrygian" as an
Phrygians spoke the Phrygian language, a member of the Indo-European linguistic family. Modern consensus regards Greek as its closest relative.[6][7][8][9]
History
A conventional date of c. 1180 BC is often used for the influx (traditionally from Thrace) of the pre-Phrygian
Migration
After the collapse of the Hittite Empire at the beginning of the twelfth century BC, the political vacuum in central-western Anatolia was filled by a wave of
Though the migration theory is still defended by many modern historians, most archaeologists have abandoned the migration hypothesis regarding the origin of the Phrygians due to a lack substantial archeological evidence, with the migration theory resting only on the accounts of Herodotus and Xanthus.[16][17]
8th to 7th centuries
Assyrian sources from the 8th century BC speak of a king Mita of the Mushki, identified with king Midas of Phrygia. An Assyrian inscription records Mita as an ally of Sargon of Assyria in 709 BC. A distinctive Phrygian pottery called Polished Ware appears in the 8th century BC. The Phrygians founded a powerful kingdom which lasted until the Lydian ascendancy (7th century BC). Under kings alternately named Gordias and Midas, the independent Phrygian kingdom of the 8th and 7th centuries BC maintained close trade contacts with her neighbours in the east and the Greeks in the west. Phrygia seems to have been able to co-exist with whatever power was dominant in eastern Anatolia at the time.
The invasion of Anatolia in the late 8th century BC to early 7th century BC by the
A series of digs have opened Gordium as one of Turkey's most revealing archeological sites. Excavations confirm a violent destruction of Gordion around 675 BC. A tomb of the Midas period, popularly identified as the "Tomb of Midas" revealed a wooden structure deeply buried under a vast tumulus, containing grave goods, a coffin, furniture, and food offerings (Archaeological Museum, Ankara). The Gordium site contains a considerable later building program, perhaps by Alyattes, the Lydian king, in the 6th century BC.
Minor Phrygian kingdoms continued to exist after the end of the Phrygian empire, and the Phrygian art and culture continued to flourish. Cimmerian people stayed in Anatolia but do not appear to have created a kingdom of their own. The Lydians repulsed the Cimmerians in the 620s, and Phrygia was subsumed into a short-lived Lydian empire. The eastern part of the former Phrygian empire fell into the hands of the Medes in 585 BC.
Croesus' Lydian Empire
Under the proverbially rich King
Post-state history
Lydian
Culture
Language
The
Modern consensus regards Greek as the closest relative of Phrygian, a position that is supported by Brixhe, Neumann, Matzinger, Woodhouse, Ligorio, Lubotsky, and Obrador-Cursach. Furthermore, 34 out of the 36 Phrygian isoglosses that are recorded are shared with Greek, with 22 being exclusive between them. The last 50 years of Phrygian scholarship developed a hypothesis that proposes a proto-Graeco-Phrygian stage out of which Greek and Phrygian originated, and if Phrygian was more sufficiently attested, that stage could perhaps be reconstructed.[8][9][20][21][22]
Archaeology
Based on an extremely slight archaeological record, some scholars such as
Religion
The Phrygians worshipped the goddess Cybele. In their language it was known as Matar 'Mother', and was also referred to as Matar Kubileya 'Mother of the mountain' (from which the Greek Kybele and Latin Cybele derive) or Matar areyastin.[23] In her typical Phrygian form, she wears a long belted dress, a polos (a high cylindrical headdress), and a veil covering the whole body. The later version of Cybele was established by a pupil of Phidias, the sculptor Agoracritus, and became the image most widely adopted by Cybele's expanding following, both in the Aegean world and at Rome. It shows her humanized though still enthroned, her hand resting on an attendant lion and the other holding the tympanon, a circular frame drum, similar to a tambourine.
The Phrygians also venerated
Obrador-Cursach (2020) analysed a new Phrygian inscription from
Mythological accounts
The name of the earliest known mythical king was
Later mythic kings of Phrygia were alternately named Gordias and Midas. Myths surround the first king Midas. There were seven altogether connecting him with a mythological tale concerning Attis.[29] This shadowy figure resided at Pessinus and attempted to marry his daughter to the young Attis in spite of the opposition of his mother figure Agdestis and his lover, the goddess Cybele. When Agdestis or Cybele appear and cast madness upon the members of the wedding feast. Midas is said to have died in the ensuing chaos.
The famous king Midas was said to be a son of the kind Gordius mentioned above. He is said to have associated himself with Silenus and other satyrs and with Dionysus, who granted him the famous "golden touch".
The mythic Midas of Thrace, accompanied by a band of his people, traveled to Asia Minor to wash away the taint of his unwelcome "golden touch" in the river Pactolus. Leaving the gold in the river's sands, Midas found himself in Phrygia, where he was adopted by the childless king Gordias and taken under the protection of Cybele. Acting as the visible representative of Cybele, and under her authority, it would seem, a Phrygian king could designate his successor.
According to the Iliad, the Phrygians were Trojan allies during the Trojan War. The Phrygia of Homer's Iliad appears to be located in the area that embraced the Ascanian lake and the northern flow of the Sangarius river and so was much more limited in extent than classical Phrygia. Homer's Iliad also includes a reminiscence by the Trojan king Priam, who had in his youth come to aid the Phrygians against the Amazons (Iliad 3.189). During this episode (a generation before the Trojan War), the Phrygians were said to be led by Otreus and Mygdon. Both appear to be little more than eponyms: there was a place named Otrea on the Ascanian Lake, in the vicinity of the later Nicaea; and the Mygdones were a people of Asia Minor, who resided near Lake Dascylitis (there was also a Mygdonia in Macedonia). During the Trojan War, the Phrygians sent forces to aid Troy, led by Ascanius and Phorcys, the sons of Aretaon. Asius, son of Dymas and brother of Hecabe, is another Phrygian noble who fought before Troy. Quintus Smyrnaeus mentions another Phrygian prince, named Coroebus, son of Mygdon, who fought and died at Troy; he had sued for the hand of the Trojan princess Cassandra in marriage. King Priam's wife Hecabe is usually said to be of Phrygian birth, as a daughter of King Dymas.
The Phrygian Sibyl was the priestess presiding over the Apollonian oracle at Phrygia.
Herodotus[30] claims the priests of Hephaestus told him a story that the Egyptian pharaoh Psammetichus had two children raised in isolation in order to find the original language. The children were reported to have uttered bekos meaning "bread" in Phrygian. It was then acknowledged by the Egyptians that the Phrygians were a nation older than the Egyptians.
Josephus claimed the Phrygians were founded by the biblical figure Togarmah, grandson of Japheth and son of Gomer: "and Thrugramma the Thrugrammeans, who, as the Greeks resolved, were named Phrygians".
See also
References and notes
- S2CID 235451836. pp. 82–83.
- ^ ISBN 0-691-00880-9, p. 65. "What can be established, despite an extremely slight archaeological record (especially along the slopes of Mt. Vermion), is that two streams of Lusatian peoples moved south in the later Bronze Age, one to settle in Hellespontine Phrygia, the other to occupy parts of western and central Macedonia."
- ^ a b The Gordion Excavations 1950-1973: Final Reports Volume 4, Rodney Stuart Young, Ellen L. Kohler, Gilbert Kenneth, p. 53.
- ^ ISBN 9780691025919.
- ^ a b Kopanias, Konstantinos (2015), "The Mushki/Phrygian Problem from the Near Eastern Point of View", In: Nostoi. Indigenous Culture, Migration and Integration in the Aegean Islands and Western Anatolia During the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age. Proceedings of the International Conference Istanbul 2011, Edited by Ν. Stampolides, C. Maner, and K. Kopanias. Istanbul: Koç University Press,
The Phrygian migration, which is mentioned in the Greek sources to have taken place shortly after the Trojan War, is likely to have occurred much earlier and in many stages.
- ^ Brixhe, Cl. "Le Phrygien". In Fr. Bader (ed.), Langues indo-européennes, pp. 165-178, Paris: CNRS Editions.
- ^ Hajnal, Ivo. ""Urgriechisch": Eine Herausforderung für die Methode der Rekonstruktion?" (PDF). Institut für Sprachwissenschaft (in German). Innsbruck, Austria: Universität Innsbruck. p. 8. Retrieved 4 March 2021.
- ^ ISSN 2083-4624.
This question is of course only just separable from the question of which languages within Indo-European are most closely related to Phrygian, which has also been hotly debated. A turning point in this debate was Kortlandt's (1988) demonstration on the basis of shared sound changes that Thraco-Armenian had separated from Phrygian and other originally Balkan languages at an early stage. The consensus has now returned to regarding Greek as the closest relative.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-68496-5.
Unquestionably, however, Phrygian is most closely linked with Greek.
- ISBN 0-199-24506-1.
- ^ JG MacQueen, The Hittites and their contemporaries in Asia Minor, 1986, p. 157.
- ^ Kopanias, Konstantinos (2015), "The Mushki/Phrygian Problem from the Near Eastern Point of View", In: Nostoi. Indigenous Culture, Migration and Integration in the Aegean Islands and Western Anatolia During the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age. Proceedings of the International Conference Istanbul 2011, Edited by Ν. Stampolides, C. Maner, and K. Kopanias. Istanbul: Koç University Press
- S2CID 164050075
- ^ Kossian, Aram V. (1997), The Mushki Problem Reconsidered
- ^ Kopanias, Konstantinos (2015), "The Mushki/Phrygian Problem from the Near Eastern Point of View", In: Nostoi. Indigenous Culture, Migration and Integration in the Aegean Islands and Western Anatolia During the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age. Proceedings of the International Conference Istanbul 2011, Edited by Ν. Stampolides, C. Maner, and K. Kopanias. Istanbul: Koç University Press
- ISBN 9780691025919.
- ^ Kopanias, Konstantinos (2015), "The Mushki/Phrygian Problem from the Near Eastern Point of View", In: Nostoi. Indigenous Culture, Migration and Integration in the Aegean Islands and Western Anatolia During the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age. Proceedings of the International Conference Istanbul 2011, Edited by Ν. Stampolides, C. Maner, and K. Kopanias. Istanbul: Koç University Press
- ^ Obrador-Cursach, Bartomeu (2018). Lexicon of the Phrygian Inscriptions (PDF). University of Barcelona. p. 101.
Scholars have long debated the exact position of Phrygian in the Indo-European language family. Although this position is not a closed question because of the fragmentary nature of our current knowledge, Phrygian has many important features which show that it is somehow related to Greek and Armenian.…Indeed, between the 19th and the first half of the 20th c. BC Phrygian was mostly considered a satəm language (a feature once considered important to establishing the position of a language) and, especially after Alf Torp's study, closer to Armenian (and Thracian), whereas it is now commonly considered to be closer to Greek.…Brixhe (1968), Neumann (1988) and, through an accurate analysis, Matzinger (2005) showed the inconsistency of the Phrygo-Armenian assumption and argued that Phrygian was a language closely related to Greek.
- ISSN 2219-4029.
2.1.4. Phrygian belongs to the centum group of IE languages (Ligorio and Lubotsky 2018: 1824). Together with Greek, Celtic, Italic, Germanic, Hittite and Tocharian, Phrygian merged the old palatovelars with plain velars in a first step: NPhr. (τιτ-)τετικμενος 'condemned' < PIE *deiḱ-; NPhr. γεγαριτμενος 'devoted, at the mercy of' < PIE *ǵhr̥Hit-; NPhr. γλουρεος 'golden' < PIE *ǵhl̥h3-ro-. However, two shifts affected this language. Phrygian merged the old labiovelar with the plain velar (the etymological and the resulting ones): OPhr. ke(y), NPhr. κε (passim) 'and' < PIE *ku̯e; OPhr. knais (B-07), NPhr. κ̣ναικαν 'wife' (16.1 = 116) < *gu̯neh2i-. Secondly, in contact with palatal vowels (/e/ and /i/, see de Lamberterie 2013: 25–26), and especially in initial position, some consonants became palatalised:PIE *ǵhes-r- 'hand' > OPhr. ↑iray (B-05),7NPhr. ζειρα (40.1 = 12) 'id.' (Hämmig 2013: 150–151). It also occurs in glosses: *ǵheu̯-mn̻ >ζευμαν 'fount, source' (Hesychius ζ 128). These two secondary processes, as happened in Tocharian and the Romance languages, lend Phrygian the guise of a satəm language.
- ^ Obrador-Cursach, Bartomeu (2018). Lexicon of the Phrygian Inscriptions (PDF). University of Barcelona. p. 102.
Furthermore, if Phrygian were not so-poorly attested perhaps we could reconstruct a Proto-Greco-Phrygian stage of both languages.
- ISSN 2219-4029.
With the current state of our knowledge, we can affirm that Phrygian is closely related to Greek. This is not a surprising conclusion: ancient sources and modern scholars agree that Phrygians did not live far from Greece in pre-historic times. Moreover, the last half century of scientific study of Phrygian has approached both languages and developed the hypothesis of a Proto-Greco-Phrygian language, to the detriment to other theories like Phrygio-Armenian or Thraco-Phrygian.
- ISSN 2219-4029.
To the best of our current knowledge, Phrygian was closely related to Greek. This affirmation is consistent with the vision offered by Neumann (1988: 23), Brixhe (2006) and Ligorio and Lubotsky (2018: 1816) and with many observations given by ancient authors. Both languages share 34 of the 36 features considered in this paper, some of them of great significance:…The available data suggest that Phrygian and Greek coexisted broadly from pre-historic to historic times, and both belong to a common linguistic area (Brixhe 2006: 39–44).
- JSTOR 27643268– via JSTOR.
- .
- ^ de Hoz, Maria-Paz (2022). "Greek–Phrygian contact and sociolinguistic context in the Neo-Phrygian corpus". In Obrador-Cursach, Bartomeu; Adiego, Ignacio-Xavier (eds.). Steps into Phrygian: language and epigraphy. Series Anatolica et Indogermanica 3. Vol. Barcino Monographica Orientalia 19. Barcelona: Edicions de la Universitat de Barcelona. p. 68.
- .
- ^ Suidas s. v. Νάννακος; Stephanus of Byzantium s.v. Ἰκόνιον; Both passages are translated in: "A New System: or, An Analysis of Antient Mythology" by Jacob Bryant (1807): 12-14.
- ^ Plutarch, "On Isis and Osiris", chap. 24.
- ^ Pausanias Description of Greece 7:17; Arnobius Against the Pagans 5.5
- ^ Histories 2.2
Further reading
- Avram, A. (2016). "Two Phrygian gods between Phrygia and Dacia". Colloquium Anatolicum. 15: 70–83.
- Drew-Bear, Thomas and Naour, Christian. "Divinités de Phrygie". In: Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt (ANRW) [Rise and Decline of the Roman World]. Band 18/3. Teilband Religion (Heidentum: Die religiösen Verhältnisse in den Provinzen [Forts.]). Edited by Wolfgang Haase, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2016 [1990]. pp. 1907-2044. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110862768-006
- Güney, Hale (2019). "The Sanctuary of Zeus Sarnendenos and the Cult of Zeus in Northeastern Phrygia". Anatolian Studies. 69: 155–74. S2CID 198042018. Accessed 24 May 2023.
- Obrador-Cursach, Bartomeu (2017). "The Phrygian god Bas" (PDF). Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 76 (2): 307–317. S2CID 166197991.
- Obrador-Cursach, Bartomeu (2022). "The gods of the Phrygian inscriptions". In Obrador-Cursach, Bartomeu; Adiego, Ignacio-Xavier (eds.). Steps into Phrygian: language and epigraphy. Series Anatolica et Indogermanica 3. Vol. Barcino Monographica Orientalia 19. Barcelona: Edicions de la Universitat de Barcelona. pp. 103–154.
- Roller, Lynn E. (1988). "Phrygian Myth and Cult". Source: Notes in the History of Art. 7 (3/4): 43-50. S2CID 191384852.