Social distancing
In public health, social distancing, also called physical distancing,
By minimising the probability that a given uninfected person will come into physical contact with an
Social distancing measures are most effective when the infectious disease spreads via one or more of the following methods, droplet contact (coughing or sneezing), direct physical contact (including sexual contact), indirect physical contact (such as by touching a contaminated surface), and
The term "social distancing" was not introduced until the 21st century.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has suggested using the term "physical distancing" instead of "social distancing" because it is physical separation which prevents transmission; people can remain socially connected by meeting outdoors at a safe distance (when there is no stay-at-home order) and by meeting via technology.[2][3][16][17]
Definition
The American Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have described social distancing as a set of "methods for reducing frequency and closeness of contact between people in order to decrease the risk of transmission of disease".[10] During the 2009 swine flu pandemic the WHO described social distancing as "keeping at least an arm's length distance from others, [and] minimizing gatherings".[8] During the COVID-19 pandemic, the CDC defined social distancing as "remaining out of congregate settings, avoiding mass gatherings, and maintaining distance (approximately six feet or two meters) from others when possible".[6][7]
Social distancing, combined with the use of face masks, good respiratory hygiene and hand washing, is considered the most feasible way to reduce or delay a pandemic.[8][18]
Measures
Several social distancing measures are used to control the spread of contagious illnesses. Research indicates that measures must be applied rigorously and immediately in order to be effective.[23]
Avoiding physical contact
Keeping a set physical distance from each other and avoiding hugs and
The distance advised by authorities varies. During the COVID-19 pandemic, for example, the World Health Organization recommends that a distance of 1 m (3.3 ft) or more is safe. Subsequently, China, Denmark, France, Hong Kong, Lithuania and Singapore adopted a 1 m social distancing policy. South Korea adopted 1.4 m (4.6 ft). Australia, Belgium, Germany, Greece, Italy, Netherlands, Portugal and Spain adopted 1.5 m (4.9 ft). The United States adopted 6 ft (1.8 m), and Canada adopted 2 m (6.6 ft). The United Kingdom first advised 2 m, then on July 4, 2020 reduced this to "one metre plus" where other methods of mitigation such as face masks were in use.[27]
The WHO's one-metre recommendation stems from research into droplet-based transmission of tuberculosis by William F. Wells, which had found that droplets produced by exhalation, coughs, or sneezes landed an average of 3 ft (0.9 m) from where they were expelled.[28][29][30] Quartz speculated that the U.S. CDC's adoption of 6 ft (1.8 m) may have stemmed from a study of SARS transmission on an airplane, published in The New England Journal of Medicine. When contacted, however, the CDC did not provide any specific information.[31]
Some have suggested that distances greater than 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) should be observed.
Various alternatives have been proposed for the tradition of
-
In this computer lab, every other workstation has been closed off to increase the distance between people working, and screens between workstations are also in place.
-
Floor markings can help people maintain distance in public places, especially when queueing.
-
Urinals adjusted in a way close contacts are less likely
School closures
Mathematical modeling has shown that transmission of an outbreak may be delayed by closing schools. However, effectiveness depends on the contacts children maintain outside of school. Often, one parent has to take time off work, and prolonged closures may be required. These factors could result in social and economic disruption.[43][44]
Workplace closures
Canceling mass gatherings
Cancellation of mass gatherings includes sports events, films or musical shows.[48] Evidence suggesting that mass gatherings increase the potential for infectious disease transmission is inconclusive.[49] Anecdotal evidence suggests certain types of mass gatherings may be associated with increased risk of influenza transmission, and may also "seed" new strains into an area, instigating community transmission in a pandemic. During the 1918 influenza pandemic, military parades in Philadelphia[50] and Boston[51] may have been responsible for spreading the disease by mixing infected sailors with crowds of civilians. Restricting mass gatherings, in combination with other social distancing interventions, may help reduce transmission.[26][52] A recent peer-reviewed study in the British Medical Journal (The BMJ) also suggested it as one of the key components of an effective strategy in reducing the burden of COVID-19.[22]
Travel restrictions
Border restrictions or internal travel restrictions are unlikely to delay an epidemic by more than two to three weeks unless implemented with over 99% coverage.[53] Airport screening was found to be ineffective in preventing viral transmission during the 2003 SARS outbreak in Canada[54] and the U.S.[55] Strict border controls between Austria and the Ottoman Empire, imposed from 1770 until 1871 to prevent persons infected with the bubonic plague from entering Austria, were reportedly effective, as there were no major outbreaks of plague in Austrian territory after they were established, whereas the Ottoman Empire continued to suffer frequent epidemics of plague until the mid-nineteenth century.[56][57]
A Northeastern University study published in March 2020 found that "travel restrictions to and from China only slow down the international spread of COVID-19 [when] combined with efforts to reduce transmission on a community and an individual level. ... Travel restrictions aren't enough unless we couple it with social distancing."[58] The study found that the travel ban in Wuhan delayed the spread of the disease to other parts of mainland China only by three to five days, although it did reduce the spread of international cases by as much as 80 percent.[59]
Shielding
Shielding measures for individuals include limiting face-to-face contacts, conducting business by phone or online, avoiding public places and reducing unnecessary travel.[60][61][62]
During the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom, shielding referred to special advisory measures put in place by the UK Government to protect those at the highest risk of serious illness from the disease. This included those with weakened immune systems (such as organ transplant recipients), as well as those with certain medical conditions such as cystic fibrosis or severe asthma. Until June 1, 2020, those shielding were strongly advised not to leave home for any reason at all, including essential travel, and to maintain a 2 m (6.6 ft) distance from anyone else in their household. Supermarkets quickly made priority grocery delivery slots available to those shielding, and the Government arranged for food boxes to be sent to those shielding who needed additional assistance, for example elderly people shielding on their own. This was gradually relaxed from June to allow shielders to spend more time outside, before being suspended indefinitely from August 1.
Quarantine
During the 2003 SARS outbreak in Singapore, approximately 8000 people were subjected to mandatory home quarantine and an additional 4300 were required to self-monitor for symptoms and make daily telephone contact with health authorities as a means of controlling the epidemic. Although only 58 of these individuals were eventually diagnosed with SARS, public health officials were satisfied that this measure assisted in preventing further spread of the infection.[63] Voluntary self-isolation may have helped reduce transmission of influenza in Texas in 2009.[64] Short and long-term negative psychological effects have been reported.[11]
Stay-at-home orders
The objective of stay-at-home orders is to reduce day-to-day contact between people and thereby reduce the spread of infection[65] During the COVID-19 pandemic, early and aggressive implementation of stay-at-home orders was effective in "flattening the curve" and provided the much needed time for healthcare systems to increase their capacity while reducing the number of peak cases during the initial wave of illness.[26] It is important for public health authorities to follow disease trends closely to re-implement appropriate social distancing policies, including stay-at-home orders, if secondary COVID-19 waves appear.[26]
Cordon sanitaire
In 1995, a cordon sanitaire was used to control an outbreak of
Protective sequestration
During the
Other measures
Other measures include shutting down or limiting
Communicating social distancing public health guidelines
Public health messaging, gaining the public's trust (countering misinformation), ensuring community involvement and two-way exchange of ideas can affect the uptake, adherence, and effectiveness of best-evidence social distancing approach to preventing disease spread.[74] The communication approaches, messaging, and delivery mechanisms need to be flexible so that they can be changed as both the best-evidence social distancing measures change and as the community needs change.[74]
History
-
Theleprosarium for the port town of Ancona, Italy.
-
Two lepers denied entrance to town. Woodcut by Vincent of Beauvais, 14th century
-
New York City parks and playgrounds were closed during a 1916 polio epidemic.[76]
-
Passenger without mask being refused boarding of a streetcar amid1918 flu pandemic. (Seattle, Washington, 1918)
1916 New York City polio epidemic
During the 1916 New York City polio epidemic, when there were more than 27,000 cases and more than 6,000 deaths due to polio in the United States, with more than 2,000 deaths in New York City alone, movie theaters were closed, meetings were cancelled, public gatherings were almost non-existent, and children were warned not to drink from water fountains, and told to avoid amusement parks, swimming pools and beaches.[77][78]
Influenza, 1918 to present
During the
School closures were shown to reduce
The 2009 swine flu pandemic caused social distancing to rise in popularity, most notably in Mexico, with the country's Ministry of Health advising people to avoid handshakes and kissing as ways of greeting people.[88] A mandatory nationwide school closure enacted in Mexico, which lasted for 18 days from late April 2009 to early May 2009, was a form of social distancing aimed at reducing the transmission of Swine flu.[89] A study from 2011 found the mandatory nationwide school closure and other forms of social distancing in Mexico were effective at reducing influenza transmission rates.[89]
During the
SARS 2003
During the SARS outbreak of 2003, social distancing measures were implemented, such as banning large gatherings, closing schools and theaters, and other public places, supplemented public health measures such as finding and isolating affected people, quarantining their close contacts, and infection control procedures. This was combined with the wearing of masks for certain people.[92] During this time in Canada, "community quarantine" was used to reduce transmission of the disease with moderate success.[93]
COVID-19 pandemic
This section needs to be updated.(March 2021) |
During the COVID-19 pandemic, social distancing and related measures are emphasized by several governments as alternatives to an enforced quarantine of heavily affected areas.[26] According to UNESCO monitoring, more than a hundred countries have implemented nationwide school closures in response to COVID-19, impacting over half the world's student population.[95] In the United Kingdom, the government advised the public to avoid public spaces, and cinemas and theaters voluntarily closed to encourage the government's message.[96]
With many people disbelieving that COVID-19 is any worse than the seasonal flu,[97] it has been difficult to convince the public—particularly youth, and the anti vaxx community to voluntarily adopt social distancing practices.[98][99] In Belgium, media reported a rave was attended by at least 300 before it was broken up by local authorities. In France, teens making nonessential trips are fined up to US$150. Beaches were closed in Florida and Alabama to disperse partygoers during spring break.[100] Weddings were broken up in New Jersey and an 8 p.m. curfew was imposed in Newark. New York, New Jersey, Connecticut and Pennsylvania were the first states to adopt coordinated social distancing policies which closed down non-essential businesses and restricted large gatherings. Shelter in place orders in California were extended to the entire state on 19 March. On the same day Texas declared a public disaster and imposed statewide restrictions.[101]
These preventive measures such as social-distancing and self-isolation prompted the widespread closure of primary, secondary, and post-secondary schools in more than 120 countries. As of 23 March 2020, more than 1.2 billion learners were out of school due to school closures in response to COVID-19.[95] Given low rates of COVID-19 symptoms among children, the effectiveness of school closures has been called into question.[102] Even when school closures are temporary, it carries high social and economic costs.[103] However, the significance of children in spreading COVID-19 is unclear.[104][105] While the full impact of school closures during the coronavirus pandemic are not yet known, UNESCO advises that school closures have negative impacts on local economies and on learning outcomes for students.[106]
In early March 2020, the sentiment "Stay Home" was coined by Florian Reifschneider, a German engineer and was quickly echoed by notable celebrities such as Taylor Swift, Ariana Grande[107][108] and Busy Philipps[109] in hopes of reducing and delaying the peak of the outbreak. Facebook, Twitter and Instagram also joined the campaign with similar hashtags, stickers and filters under #staythefhome, #stayhome, #staythefuckhome and began trending across social media.[110][111][112][113] The website claims to have reached about two million people online and says the text has been translated into 17 languages.[113]
Impact on mental health
There are concerns that social distancing can have adverse affects on participants' mental health.
Psychologist Lennis Echterling noted that, in such social distancing situations, using technology for "connection with loved ones...is imperative" to combat isolation, for the sake of one's well-being.[117] Social worker Mindy Altschul noted that the concept of "social distancing" ought to be reframed as "physical distancing", so as to emphasize the fact that being physically isolated need not, and should not, result in being socially isolated.[118]
People with
Portrayal in literature
In his 1957 science fiction novel The Naked Sun, Isaac Asimov portrays a planet where people live with social distancing. They are spread out, miles from each other, across a sparsely-populated world. Communication is primarily through technology. A male and a female still need to engage in sex to make a baby, but it is seen as a dangerous, nasty chore. In contrast, when communication is through technology the situation is the reverse: there is no modesty, and casual nudity is frequent. The novel's point of departure is a murder: this seemingly idyllic world, in fact, has serious social problems.
Theoretical basis
From the perspective of epidemiology, the basic goal behind social distancing is to decrease the
Where the value of can be brought below 1 for sufficiently long, containment is achieved, and the number infected should decrease.[123]
For any given period of time, the growth in the number of infections can be modeled as:[124]
where:
- is the number of infected individuals after incubation periods (5 days, in the case of COVID-19)
Using COVID-19 as an example, the following table shows the infection spread given:
- A: No social distance mitigation
- B: 50% reduction in social interaction
- C: 75% reduction in social interaction
Time | A | B | C |
---|---|---|---|
5 days (1 incubation period) |
2.5 | 1.25 | 0.625 |
30 days (6 incubation periods) |
406 | 15 | 2.5 |
Effectiveness
An empirical study published in July 2020 in The BMJ (British Medical Journal) analyzed data from 149 countries, and reported an average of 13% reduction in COVID-19 incidence after the implementation of social distancing policies.[22] Another study found that four social distancing interventions combined resulted in a reduction of the infection rate from 66% to less than 1%.[125]
See also
- COVID-19 party
- Civil inattention
- Herd immunity
- Lockdown
- Pest house
- Stay-at-home order
References
- PMID 32269067. ("...initial exponential growth expected for an unconstrained outbreak.")
- ^ Van Kerkhove, Maria D.; Diego; Foulkes, Imogen; Ondelam, Charles; Gretler, Corinne; Costas (2020-03-20). "COVID-19" (PDF). World Health Organization. Archived(PDF) from the original on 2020-03-25. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
- ^ Corus Entertainment Inc. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-03-26. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
- ^ Venske, Regula [in German] (2020-03-26). Schwyzer, Andrea (ed.). "Die Wirkung von Sprache in Krisenzeiten" [The effect of language in times of crisis] (Interview). NDR Kultur (in German). Norddeutscher Rundfunk. Archived from the original on 2020-03-27. Retrieved 2020-03-27. (NB. Regula Venske is president of the PEN Centre Germany.)
- ^ a b Johnson, Carolyn Y.; Sun, Lena; Freedman, Andrew (2020-03-10). "Social distancing could buy U.S. valuable time against coronavirus". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2020-03-27. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
- ^ a b c Pearce, Katie (2020-03-13). "What is social distancing and how can it slow the spread of COVID-19?". The Hub. Johns Hopkins University. Archived from the original on 2020-03-29. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
- ^ a b "Risk Assessment and Management". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020-03-22. Archived from the original on 2020-03-04. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
- ^ a b c "Pandemic influenza prevention and mitigation in low resource communities" (PDF). World Health Organization. 2009-05-02. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
- ^ a b "Guidance on social distancing for everyone in the UK". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 2020-03-24. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
- ^ a b Kinlaw, Kathy; Levine, Robert J. (2007-02-15). "Ethical guidelines in Pandemic Influenza – Recommendations of the Ethics Subcommittee of the Advisory Committee to the Director, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention" (PDF). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-02-05. Retrieved 2020-03-23. (12 pages)
- ^ from the original on 2020-03-13.
- ^ "Interim Pre-Pandemic Planning Guidance: Community Strategy for Pandemic Influenza Mitigation in the United States – Early, Targeted, Layered Use of Nonpharmaceutical Interventions" (PDF). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. February 2007. CS10848. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-03-19. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
- ^ CDC (2020-02-11). "Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2020-10-21.
- ^ "social distancing". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2020-05-07.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4200-6088-1. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-03-29. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
- ^ Tangermann, Victor (2020-03-24) [20 March 2020]. "It's Officially Time to Stop Using The Phrase 'Social Distancing'". science alert (Futurism / The Byte). Archived from the original on 2020-03-26. Retrieved 2020-03-29. [1]
- SSRN 3568435.
- ^ "Winning together: Novel coronavirus (COVID-19) infographic". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2020-05-16.
- ^ Wiles, Siouxsie (2020-03-09). "The three phases of Covid-19 – and how we can make it manageable". The Spinoff. Morningside, Auckland, New Zealand. Archived from the original on 2020-03-27. Retrieved 2020-03-09.
- ^ Wiles, Siouxsie (2020-03-14). "After 'Flatten the Curve', we must now 'Stop the Spread'. Here's what that means". The Spinoff. Morningside, Auckland, New Zealand. Archived from the original on 2020-03-26. Retrieved 2020-03-13.
- PMID 32164834.
A key issue for epidemiologists is helping policy makers decide the main objectives of mitigation—e.g., minimising morbidity and associated mortality, avoiding an epidemic peak that overwhelms health-care services, keeping the effects on the economy within manageable levels, and flattening the epidemic curve to wait for vaccine development and manufacture on scale and antiviral drug therapies.
- ^ PMID 32669358.
- PMID 22905965.
- Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970. United States Department of Labor. OSHA 3327-02N 2007. Archived from the original on 2020-03-25. Retrieved 2020-03-18. [2]
- The University of Chicago. 2015. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-03-24. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "The 2019–2020 Novel Coronavirus (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2) Pandemic: A Joint American College of Academic International Medicine‑World Academic Council of Emergency Medicine Multidisciplinary COVID‑19 Working Group Consensus Paper". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2020-05-16.
- ^ Shukman, David (2020-06-23). "Is it safe to relax the 2m rule?". BBC News. Retrieved 2020-07-01.
- ^ Foley, Katherine Ellen (2020-04-15). "Where does the six-foot guideline for social distancing come from?". Quartz. Retrieved 2020-08-04.
- PMID 6338584.
- ISSN 0002-9262.
- PMID 14681507.
- PMID 32340347.
- New York Times. Retrieved 2020-04-01.
- New York Times. Retrieved 2020-04-01.
- ^ Huang, S. (2020-03-26). "Why we should all wear masks – There is new scientific rationale". Medium. Retrieved 2020-04-01.
- ^ Letzter, R. (2020-03-31). "Is 6 feet enough space for social distancing? Not everyone thinks that's enough distance". Live Science. Retrieved 2020-04-01.
- ^ Thoelen, J. (2020-04-08). "Belgian-Dutch Study: Why in times of COVID-19 you should not walk/run/bike close behind each other". Medium. Retrieved 2020-04-01.
- PMID 32822927.
- ^ Culver, Jordan (2010-04-01). "2 meters enough for social distancing? MIT researcher says droplets carrying coronavirus can travel up to 8 meters". Medical Xpress. Retrieved 2020-08-28.
- PMID 32527856.
- ^ a b Barajas, Julia; Etehad, Melissa (2020-03-13). "Joined palms, hands-on hearts, Vulcan salutes: Saying hello in a no-handshake era". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 2020-03-27. Retrieved 2020-03-18.
- ^ "2009 Press Releases". Health Protection Agency. 2009-12-24. Archived from the original on 2010-03-03. Retrieved 2009-12-24.
- ISBN 978-1-4557-0038-7. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-03-29. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
- PMID 19628172.
- S2CID 11591504.
- PMID 22095353.
- ^ "Social Distancing Support Guidelines For Pandemic Readiness" (PDF). Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment. March 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-02-13. Retrieved 2017-02-13.
- PMID 24630149. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2015-05-15. Retrieved 2015-05-15. (13 pages)
- S2CID 10745529.
- ^ Smithsonian Magazine. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-03-27. Retrieved 2020-03-27.
- ^ "The Flu in Boston". American Experience. WGBH Educational Foundation. Archived from the original on 2020-03-20. Retrieved 2020-03-28.
- PMID 23856374.
- PMID 16642006.
- PMID 15550198. Archived from the originalon 2009-11-05.
- ISBN 0-30959433-2.
- ISBN 978-1-43812923-5. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-03-29. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
- LCCN 2008019487. 978–0–313–34102–1 (vol 1), 978–0–313–34103–8 (vol 2). Archived(PDF) from the original on 2020-02-15. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
- ^ Arntsen, Emily (2020-03-06). "Closing borders can delay, but can't stop the spread of COVID-19, new report says". News@Northeastern. Northeastern University. Archived from the original on 2020-03-23. Retrieved 2020-03-28.
- PMID 32144116.
- from the original on 2020-03-23. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
- ^ "Social Distancing Guidelines (for workplace communicable disease outbreaks)". Society for Human Resource Management. 2017. Archived from the original on 2017-04-23. Retrieved 2017-04-23.
- ^ "What's the difference between shielding, self-isolation and social distancing?". www.bhf.org.uk. Archived from the original on 2020-03-29. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
- PMID 16830002. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2017-04-24. Retrieved 2017-04-23.
- S2CID 24255689.
- ^ "Staying at home and away from others (social distancing)". GOV.UK. 2020-05-11.
- ^ Garrett, Laurie (2014-08-14). "Heartless but Effective: I've Seen 'Cordon Sanitaire' Work Against Ebola". The New Republic. Archived from the original on 2017-09-10. Retrieved 2017-06-05.
- ^ "Outbreak of Ebola Viral Hemorrhagic Fever – Zaire, 1995". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Vol. 44, no. 19. 1995-05-19. pp. 381–382. Archived from the original on 2019-08-25. Retrieved 2017-06-05.
- from the original on 2020-03-29. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
- ISBN 978-1-40130386-0.
- University of Michigan Medical School. Archivedfrom the original on 2018-06-15. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
- (PDF) from the original on 2017-02-16. Retrieved 2017-06-06.
- from the original on 2020-03-25. Retrieved 2020-03-25.
- ^ "Flu Pandemic Mitigation – Social Distancing". globalsecurity.org. Archived from the original on 2020-03-22. Retrieved 2020-03-23.
- ^ PMID 37811673.
- ^ Souvay, Charles Léon (1910). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 9. pp. 182–185. .
- D. Appleton. 1916. p. 400.
- ISBN 978-0-19-533583-5. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-03-28. Retrieved 2020-03-28.
- (PDF) from the original on 2019-04-30.
- PMID 17416679.
- PMID 788585.
- PMID 30228752.
- PMID 17599996.
- PMID 16961567.
- (6 pages)
- PMID 19316351. (19 pages)
- PMID 21121230.
- ^ "Flu Pandemic Study Supports Social Distancing". NIH Research Matters. National Institutes of Health. 2011-06-06. Archived from the original on 2017-04-23. Retrieved 2017-04-22.
- ^ Wong, Grace (2009-05-01). "Flu virus sparks 'social distancing' trend". CNN. Retrieved 2021-03-30.
- ^ a b "Flu Pandemic Study Supports Social Distancing". National Institutes of Health. 2011-06-06. Retrieved 2021-03-30.
- from the original on 2020-02-16. Retrieved 2020-03-17.
- ^ Walsh, Eric, ed. (2009-07-20). "Closing schools won't stop pandemics: study". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2020-04-04. Retrieved 2020-03-17.
- PMID 15550198.
- PMID 20034405.
- Washington Post. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-03-30. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
- ^ a b "COVID-19 Educational Disruption and Response". UNESCO. 2020-03-04. Archived from the original on 2020-03-29. Retrieved 2020-03-23.
- ^ "Most UK cinemas shut after virus advice". BBC News. 2020-03-17. Archived from the original on 2020-03-23. Retrieved 2020-03-21.
- ^ 'We're going to have more deaths': Influenza kills more people than the coronavirus so everyone is overreacting, right? Wrong—and here's why Archived 8 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine, MarketWatch, Quentin Fottrell, 9 March 2020
- ^ Shear, Michael D.; Mervosh, Sarah (2020-04-17). "Trump Encourages Protest Against Governors Who Have Imposed Virus Restrictions". The New York Times. Retrieved 2020-10-24. Updated 29 April 2020
- ^ Gammon, Katharine (2020-04-16). "How the Anti-Vaccine Community Is Responding to Covid-19". Undark. Retrieved 2020-10-24.
- ^ "Parents, police struggle to social distance the young in coronavirus outbreak". 2020-03-20. Archived from the original on 2020-03-23. Retrieved 2020-03-23.
- ^ Young, Elise; Baker, David R. (2020-03-20). "Uh-Oh Moment Finally Hits States Slow to Adopt Social Distancing". Bloomberg News. Bloomberg L.P. Archived from the original on 2020-03-23. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
- ^ Frieden, Tom (2020-03-11). "Lessons from Ebola: The secret of successful epidemic response". CNN. Archived from the original on 2020-03-23. Retrieved 2020-03-23.
- ^ "Coronavirus deprives nearly 300 million students of their schooling: UNESCO". The Telegram. Archived from the original on 2020-03-28. Retrieved 2020-03-23 – via Reuters.
- PMID 32074416.
- PMID 32310621.
- ^ "Adverse consequences of school closures". UNESCO. 2020-03-10. Archived from the original on 2020-03-25. Retrieved 2020-03-23.
- ^ Ehrlich, Brenna (2020-03-15). "Taylor Swift Urges Fans to Stay Home Amid COVID-19 Outbreak: "I love you so much and I need to express my concern that things aren't being taken seriously enough right now," superstar writes". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on 2020-03-19. Retrieved 2020-03-28.
- ^ Reifschneider, Florian (2020). "A Movement to Stop the COVID-19 Pandemic". #StayTheFuckHome. Archived from the original on 2020-03-29. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
- ^ Hudson, Alex (2020-03-17). "Busy Philipps Joins Cameo to Record "Stay the Fuck Home" Messages for Coronavirus". exclaim.ca. Archived from the original on 2020-03-27. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
- ^ "AMA, AHA, ANA: #StayHome to confront COVID-19". Chicago, USA: American Medical Association. 2020-03-24. Archived from the original on 2020-03-28. Retrieved 2020-03-30.
- ^ Berg, Madeline. "No, Netflix Is Not Spoiling Its Own Shows To Fight Coronavirus". Forbes. Archived from the original on 2020-03-27. Retrieved 2020-03-30.
- ^ Sayej, Nadja (2020-03-25). "'It feels like wartime': how street artists are responding to coronavirus. The pandemic may have closed museums and galleries down but artists have found other ways to comment on the crisis". The Guardian. Street art. Archived from the original on 2020-03-29. Retrieved 2020-03-30.
- ^ a b Solis, Jorge (2020-03-16). "The #StayTheF***kHome movement just wants you to, well, you know". Newsweek. Culture. Archived from the original on 2020-03-27. Retrieved 2020-03-30.
- ^ Ao, Bethany (2020-03-19). "Social distancing can strain mental health. Here's how you can protect yourself". The Philadelphia Inquirer. Archived from the original on 2020-03-26. Retrieved 2020-03-24.
- ^ "Stress and Coping". Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020-03-23 [2020-02-11]. Archived from the original on 2020-03-29. Retrieved 2020-03-24.
- ^ Willis, Olivia (2020-03-22). "Coronavirus: Social distancing and isolation can take a toll on your mental health, here's how some people are coping. Managing mental health in the time of coronavirus". ABC News. Archived from the original on 2020-03-28. Retrieved 2020-03-24.
- ^ Genevieve Askin & Janice Lewis. "Combatting Loneliness During Social Isolation". James Madison University.
- ^ Kylie Stanger. "Staying Connected While Social Distancing Is Important, Here's Why". Hackensack Meridian Hdalth.
- ^ a b c Treadwell-Deering, Diane E. (July 2020). "Coronavirus (COVID-19): Helping Kids With Autism Cope". KidsHealth.org. Archived from the original on 2020-07-26. Retrieved 2020-07-26.
- ^ a b c Farmer, Sam (2020-05-08). "Coronavirus and social distancing through an autistic lens". The Hill. Retrieved 2020-07-26.
- ^ a b Thom, Robyn; McDougle, Chris (2020-04-24). "Strategies to support teens and young adults with autism spectrum disorder during COVID-19". Harvard University. Retrieved 2020-07-26.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-49873107-2.
- ^ "Ending coronavirus lockdowns will be a dangerous process of trial and error". Science. 2020-04-14. Retrieved 2020-04-20.
- ^ Lu, Marcus (2020-03-28). "The Math Behind Social Distancing". Visual Capitalist. Retrieved 2020-04-16.
- ^ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340108203_The_Effectiveness_of_Social_Distancing_in_Mitigating_COVID-19_Spread_a_modelling_analysis page 6