Pierre André de Suffren
Pierre André de Suffren | |
---|---|
Vice-admiral in the French NavyGeneral of the Galley of Malta | |
Unit | Indian Ocean squadron |
Battles/wars | War of the Austrian Succession:
|
Awards | Order of the Holy Spirit Order of Saint-John of Jérusalem |
Suffren was then appointed to serve in the
Biography
Early life
Pierre André de Suffren was born on 17 July 1729 in the Château de Saint-Cannat to the family of Marquis Paul de Suffren, the third son of an old nobility from Provence with two daughters and three other sons.[5] [6] [Note 2] In October 1743, as the War of the Austrian Succession was raging, Suffren, aged 14,[5] went to Toulon to undertaken naval studies as a Garde-Marine.[4] However, he spent only 6 months ashore before he was appointed on a ship.[8]
War of the Austrian Succession
Suffren served on the 64-gun Solide[5] and took part in the Battle of Toulon in 1744. During the battle, Solide engaged HMS Northumberland. [9]
In the spring of 1745, Suffren transferred to Pauline, part of a 5-ship and 2-frigate squadron under Captain Jean-Baptiste Mac Nemara,[Note 3] sent to America to harass British forces.[10][11] At his return, Suffren served on the 60-gun Trident, under Captain d'Estourmel, and took part in the Duc d'Anville expedition.[12]
Suffren graduated from the Gardes-Marine in 1747 as an ensign,
The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle restoring peace, Suffren joined the Order of Malta.[17] He served in several commercial expeditions[18] on galleys of the order, escorting merchantmen and defending them against the depredation of the Barbary corsairs. In late 1754, Suffren departed Malta to return to Toulon.[17]
Seven Years' War
In 1756, Suffren had returned to Toulon and had risen to
In 1757, Suffren transferred to the 80-gun
Toulon was blockaded by Edward Boscawen's forces but, on 16 August 1758, La Clue seized an opportunity to make a sortie with 12 ships and 3 frigates. The frigate HMS Gibraltar detected La Clue's squadron and reported to Boscawen, who moved to intercept.[22] Meanwhile, the French squadron failed to maintain formation and scattered.[23] In the ensuing Battle of Lagos, Océan ran aground in Almadora Bay and was burnt by the British, in violation of neutrality laws,[24][25] while her crew was taken prisoner, including Suffren.[26][18] He returned to France after several months and was left without employ at sea for several years.[27]
Interwar period
On the return of peace in 1763 Suffren intended again to do the service in the caravans which was required to qualify him to hold the high and lucrative posts of the order. He was, however, named to the command of the 20-gun xebec Caméléon,[27] which he cruised against the Barbary pirates.[11][28] Shortly thereafter, he transferred on Singe, also a 20-gun xebec, part of a squadron under Louis Charles du Chaffault de Besné.[28] He took part in the Larache expedition.[27] In 1767, Suffren was promoted to frigate captain and called to Brest to serve on the 64-gun Union, flagship of a squadron headed by Breugnon.[29][28] Upon his return, he was promoted to Frigate captain on 18 August 1767.[30]
After the end of the expedition, Suffren returned to Malta to resume escort duty with the order. He spent four years, rising from Knight to Commander. In February 1772, he was promoted to captain in the French Navy, and returned to Toulon to take command of the 26-gun frigate Mignonne. He conducted two patrols in the Eastern Mediterranean. [29][28]
In 1776,
War of American independence
Tensions mounted between France and England in early 1778 in the context of the
The French fleet sailed to Martinique, where Suffren's division joined up with it, and from there to Grenada, leading to the Battle of Grenada on 6 July 1779. Fantasque was at the front of the vanguard, preceding the 74-gun Zélé.[25] When the two fleets came in contact, she came under fire from the 74-gun Royal Oak and the 70-gun Boyne, sustaining 62 men killed or wounded.[34][11] After the battle, Admiral d'Estaing sent Suffren with a 2-ship and 3-frigate division to secure the surrender of Carriacou and Union Island. [35]
On 7 September 1779, d'Estaing ordered Suffren to blockade the mouth of Savannah River, to cover the landing of French troops in support of the Siege of Savannah, and prevent British ships from escaping. Suffren led the 64-gun Artésien and Provence, and the frigates Fortunée, Blanche and Chimère, sailing into the river and forcing the British to scuttle several ships,[36] notably HMS Rose.
On 1 March 1780,
Campaign in the Indian Ocean
With the outbreak of the
Battle of Porto Praya
The squadron departed Brest on 22 March 1781. En route, Artésien, which had originally been appointed to a shorter mission, found herself short on water, and Captain de Cardaillac requested permission to resupply at
Johnstone arrived in the morning of 21 July, left two frigates to watch the bay, and sailed on to Saldanha Bay.[43] On 24 July, Suffren set sail with four ships,[Note 7] chased away the British frigates, and patrolled the area around the Cape to ascertain the intentions of the British. Satisfied that Johnstone had renounced attacking the Cape colony, he resupplied and sailed to Isle de France (now Mauritius) with the rest of the squadron, arriving on 28 July.[50]
Preliminary operations at Isle de France
Until the outbreak of the Anglo-French War, the French colony of
Suffren arrived at Isle de France on 25 October 1781.[61][62] The island had been selected as the base for French operations in the Indian Ocean, falling under the overall command of Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau.[63]
On 7 December 1781, d'Orves led a 27-ship fleet to Ceylon, with his flag on Orient. He had 11 ships of the line, 3 frigates and 3 corvettes at his disposal. En route, d'Orves changed his objectif from
Battle of Sadras
In the following days, d'Orves' failing health deteriorated to the point where he was not fit for duty, and he delegated command to Suffren..
D'Orves died the same day at 1600. Suffren re-appointed his captains to the ships of the squadron: Captain de Lapallière
On 14 February, the usual monsoon wind from the North-East resumed, allowing Suffren's squadron to sail South. In the evening, Fine, under Perrier de Salvert, came in view of Madras harbour and Hughes' squadron. Seeing Hugues anchored in a very strong defensive position, Suffren decided to sail off the coast,[71] but to his surprise, Hugues left the safety of the forts and gave chase.[72] Suffren deployed a frigate screen to warn his squadron of Hugues' moves, but during the night Pourvoyeuse drifted away from the fleet due to a navigation error, while Fine lost sight of the British ships, and both thus failed to keep Suffren appraised of Hughes's position.[73] In the morning, signals from Fine informed Suffren that HMS Montmouth, Hero, Isis, Aigle and Burford where approaching the French transports. Suffren rushed with his warships to protect the convoy, and Hughes ordered his ships to regroup and form a line of battle.[74] In the morning of 17 February, the fleets were about 6 km apart[Note 13], the British forming a line and had captured Lawriston, while the French were scattered due to an error in interpreting night signals. Suffren formed a line without consideration for the order of battle,[75] and at 1500 he closed in within gun range, starting the Battle of Sadras.
Suffren sustained about 30 men killed and 100 wounded,[76] and light damage to his riggings.[77] At 1900 he broke contact.[76]
Battle of Providien
Suffren returned to Pondichéry, where he arrived on 19 February 1782 and learned that the British squadron was heading for Trincomalee. After consulting Hyder Ali, he decided not to land his troops in Pondichéry, and rather to head for Porto Nove, where he arrived on 23 February.[78] Hyder Ali despatched André Piveron de Morlat, the French ambassador, to act as an intermediary between Suffren and himself, along with two of his officiers. Suffren negotiated an agreement that French troops would retain their own command; that a 4,000-man cavalry and 6,000-man infantry force would reinforce them; and that they be paid 24 Lakh rupee a year.[79] Suffren landed his troops at Porto Nove, and departed on 23 March to search for the British fleet.
On 10 April, the two fleets came into view, and they spent two days in manoeuvres, trying to gain an advantage on the other.[79] In the morning, Fine captured a British courier and managed to retrieve the dispatches that her captain had thrown overboard, revealing British plans to expel the Dutch from Ceylon.[80] On 12, the Battle of Providien broke out, leaving both squadrons damaged. Suffren retreated to the safety of the Dutch forts of Batacalo to repair, and tend to those members of his crews who were wounded or suffered from scurvy.[79]
Battle of Negapatam
On 3 June 1782, Suffren departed Batacalo and sailed to Cuddalore, where he received letters from Hyder Ali requesting that he lay siege to Nagapattinam. The French troops reembarked on their transports, when Bellone, which had been left to patrol, came with news that Hughes' squadron was at Nagapattinam. Suffren ordered an immediate departure and found the British ships anchored when he arrived on 6 July 1782.[81] Before the battle, Suffren despatched Pourvoyeuse to Malacca, Résolution to Manila, and Fortitude and Yarmouth to Isle de France, to purchase spare spars, food and ammunition to resupply his fleet. He furthermore kept Sylphide and Diligent handy to bring news of the outcome of the battle to Isle de France.[82]
The
Suffren cruised off Nagapattinam to observe the moves of the British ships, and seeing them idle, returned to Cuddalore to repair.[88] On the way, HMS Rodney joined up as cartel with Héros, with Captain James Watt of HMS Sultan[89] bringing a letter from Hughes demanding that Suffren hand over Sévère after her surrender. Suffren answered that he was unaware that Sévère had surrendered and promised to launch an investigation, and also warned that without orders from his government he was not at liberty to give away his ships.[88]
Following the incident with Sévère, Suffren relieved Cillart of duty and sent him back to Isle de France to be returned to France and
Battle of Trincomalee
On 25 July 1782, Hyder Ali arrived at Bahour under the gun salutes of the fortress and the whole French squadron. The next day, a 500-man cavalry troop under General Ghulam Ali Khan escorted Suffren, six of his captains and several officers to the encampment of Hyder Ali's army for a meeting with him.[86] Suffren announced that Bussy-Castelnau had arrived to Isle de France with 6 ships of the line, 2 frigates and transports carrying 5,000 soldiers. He also informed Hyder Ali that a French frigate had intercepted a British schooner carrying Colonal Horn to Nagapattinam. Hyder Ali responded with luxurious gifts to Suffren and his officers, or with gifts represented by their equivalent value in rupees. He then ajourned the meeting until the next day. [94][Note 16]
On 27, Hyder Ali invited Suffren and Piveron to a private dinner, with European-style seating in deference to his guests.[95][Note 17] Suffren reported on the battles against Hughes, and they reviewed plans of operations against the British. Hyder Ali was especially concerned by British advance on the Malabar Coast and the risk that the Maratha Empire would switch sides, ally with the British and start a war with Mysore.[Note 18] The next day, Fine joined the squadron with a prize carrying British colonel Horn, of the Madras Army, and Lézard brought news of the arrival of Bussy-Castelnau, with the 74-gun Illustre and the 64-gun Saint Michel, on the theatre of operations.[96]
Meanwhile, the French squadron was effecting repairs, especially to its rigging, and Pourvoyeuse sailed to Malacca to pick up spars.[97][98] In early August, Suffren learnt that the British fleet had departed Nagapattinam and was embarking troops in Madras, bound for an unknown destination. Suffren departed at once for Tharangambadi in the hope of discovering the British plans. Failing to do so, he sailed to Batticaloa, where he arrived on 8 August to find Consolante, arrived from Isle de France three days earlier. From Consolante, Suffren learnt that Bussy's Illustre and Saint Michel were awaiting him at Galle with 8 transports of troops and supplies. Suffren had sent a light ship to Trincomalee, which returned announcing that the British ships were not there. Suffren then decided to lay siege to Trincomalee.[97]
On 21 August, the two ships of the convoy arrived. Suffren had ammunition from the convoy distributed among his warships to replenish their magazines, and explained his intentions to the captains.
On 25 August, the fleet set sail and formed a battle line, soon arriving in view of the forts of Trincomalee. 2,000 men quickly landed, with siege artillery, ammunition and three days worth of rations. By 29, the French had completed their siege battery emplacements, and they started bombarding the fort. On 30, at 0900, Suffren sent a message to the fort of Trincomalee to negotiate its capitulation. Captain
On 3 September, the British fleet arrived. Suffren reembarked his troops and moved to intercept, leading to the Battle of Trincomalee.[104] The French line fought disorganised, especially after Vengeur caught fire and had to distance herself from the other ships. The flag of Héros was shot away by British fire and Suffren had new French ensigns hoisted to continue the fight. After an hour and a half, night fell and the battle ended. Suffren was furious at the conduct of his captains, whom he accused of abandoning him.[105] The next day, the British fleet had disappeared, and Suffren returned to Trincomalee, where he arrived in the evening of 7 September 1782.[106]
Battle of Cuddalore
When the French squadron arrived at Trincomalee in the evening of 7 September 1782 after the Battle of Trincomalee, its ships were seriously damaged. Héros, in particular, was leaking and had lost her foremast and mainmast. The ships anchored to effect repairs, which the crew completed in two weeks.
Meanwhile, Suffren received news that Hyder Ali had left Cuddalore with his army to fight in the North, leaving the city vulnerable to a British attack from Madras. As Cuddalore was a crucial supply depot, it was imperative for Suffren to protect it. Suffren departed Trincomalee on 1 October to reinforce Cuddalore,[106] arriving on 4 October. The expected British attack did not happen, and on 12 October, the change in monsoon forced both fleets to shelter in harbour. Hughes anchored at Bombay, [109] while Suffren chose to sail to Aceh. By choosing Aceh, Suffren avoided both being driven away from the battlefield as he would have by choosing Isle de France, and the climate of Trincomalee which he feared would be detrimental to his crew.[109]
The French squadron left Cuddalore on 15 October 1782 and arrived at Aceh on 1 November. Pourvoyeuse and Bellone arrived shortly after with spare parts, and the fleet spent the following weeks tending to the sick and effecting repairs.[110] After a while, a corvette arrived from Isle de France, bringing news that a 3-ship squadron under Antoine de Thomassin de Peynier was about to arrive, escorting a convoy ferrying troops and ammunitions, as well as Bussy-Castelnau.[111]
Suffren's fleet set sail on 20 December to return to Coromandel. On the way, it raided the British colony of Ganjam, destroying a number of merchantmen. On 12 January 1783, the frigate HMS Coventry, unaware of the presence of the French fleet and mistaking its ships for East Indiamen, approached and had to surrender. From the prisoners, Suffren learnt of Hyder Ali's death. The fleet continued to Cuddalore, arriving there on 1 February.[111] Peynier's squadron of 3 ships and 1 frigate arrived shortly afterwards with 30 transports, survivors of a much larger convoy that had lost a number of ships to the elements and to the British. [112]
With the return of favourable weather, Suffren expected and feared Hughes' attack, as his own ships were either damaged after long cruises, or had at best only received field repair at Aceh. He therefore quickly landed his troops at Cuddalore and set sail for Trincomalee. Unfavourable winds made progression difficult and as Suffren's squadron entered the bay, Fine reported 17 sails closing in.[112] The French squadron retreated into the safety of Trincomalee and started repairing. [113]
On 24 May, Hughes' squadron passed off Trincomalee. A few days later, a ship brought letters from Bussy-Castelnau announcing that Cuddalore was besieged and blockaded.[113] Suffren departed Trincomalee on 11 June 1783 and passed off Tharangambadi on 16, when the frigate screen signaled 18 ships in view. Suffren transferred onto the frigate Cléopâtre to personally reconnoitre the situation. The two fleets approached each other in the evening manoeuvered without engaging. In the morning, the French found themselves at the entrance of Cuddalore Bay, while the British squadron was further off at sea.[114] Suffren anchored his ships and spent the night reinforcing his crew with 1,200 soldiers from ashore.[115] On 18 June, Suffren set sail and the two squadrons chased each other for two days, trying to gain an advantage. Finally, on 20, the two fleets came in contact and engaged, starting the Battle of Cuddalore at 1530. [115]
On 25, Hughes retreated to Madras,[116] and on 29, a British frigate came as a cartel,[117] bringing news of the preliminary agreements to the Treaty of Paris that had been signed on 9 February 1783, and Hughes' offer of a cease-fire. Suffren accepted. On 25 July, the frigate Surveillante arrived from Europe with news of the Peace of Paris and orders to Suffren to return to France, leaving 5 ships under Peynier in the Indian Ocean.[118]
Post-War
Suffren's squadron arrived at Trincomalee on 8 August. Most of it remained there until October. Suffren himself sailed to Pondichéry on 15 September with Héros and Cléopâtre to confer with Bussy, arriving on 17. There, he learnt of his promotion to Lieutenant général des Armées navales.[119] He departed for Trincomalee on 26, arriving on 29. The fleet departed for Europe on 6 October. [120] On his way, Suffren called the Cape of Good Hope, and had stayed there for a few days when Hughes' squadron arrived, with unfavourable winds. HMS Exeter ran aground,[121] and both the British and French ships launched their boats to provide assistance.[122]
Suffren arrived at Toulon on 26 March 1784. Summoned to Versailles, he was received by Navy Minister
In October 1787, with the implementation of the Eden Agreement, tensions again flared up between France and England, and it was feared that a new conflict was looming. As a precaution, Louis XVI ordered the Brest squadron be readied, and he appointed Suffren to command it, leaving him the choice of his captains. As he prepared for the journey to Brest, Suffren's health suddenly declined. He died in Paris on 8 December 1788.[124]
Legacy
Assessment
Suffren was generally recognised as an able commander. The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition called him "perhaps the ablest sea-commander that France ever produced'.[125] In The Influence of Sea Power upon History, Mahan writes:
The military situation... demanded first the disabling of the hostile fleet, next the capture of certain strategic ports. That this diagnosis was correct is as certain as that it reversed the common French maxims, which would have put the port first and the fleet second as objectives.[126]
Lacour-Gayet cites Suffren's instructions before the
On the other hand,
Rémi Monaque offers a more nuanced assessment, finding Suffren an aggressive and innovative commander comparable to Ruyter and Nelson,[131] but also one whose lack of didactic qualities and social graces made him misunderstood and disliked by his captains, and thus failed to develop his full potential.[132]
Monuments and memorials
Eight ships of the French Navy have been named Suffren in honour of Suffren de Saint Tropez.
A number of streets and avenues through France are named in Suffren's honour. In Paris, the Avenue de Suffren runs alongside the Champ de Mars.
-
Suffren, by Pompeo Batoni.
-
Suffren's statue inSaint Tropez.
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The envoys Mattheus Lestevenon and Gerard Brantsen presenting vice-admiral Pierre André Bailly de Suffren de Saint Tropez with a golden sword in 1784
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Bust of Suffren byParis naval museum.
Notes
- ^ usually pronounced [syfʁɛn], historically [syfʁɛ̃] and still pronounced in this way in the French Navy[3]
- ^ The older son was an Army officer; the second, a priest; the third and fourth sons were Navy officers; the oldest daughter married Marquis de Pierrevert, and the youngest married Marquis de Nibles de Vitrolles.[7]
- ^ Alternatively spelt "Macnémara", "Macnemara"[10] or "Macnamara"
- ^ The remains of the Cerberus are now part of a site listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the "Wreck Sites of HMS Cerberus and HMS Lark."
- ^ The full text of Suffren's memorandum on copper sheathing is quoted in Cunat, p.353-354
- ^ Several authors attribute Suffren's disregard for neutrality law to his experience at the Battle of Lagos, 20 years earlier.[25][46][45]
- ^ Annibal was in need of more extensive repairs to her rigging:[48] after losing her masts at Porto Praya, she had done the rest of the journey in two of Sphinx.[49]
- ^ Sometimes spelt "Tronjoly"[51]
- ^ Cunat spells "Saint-Orins"[52]
- ^ Built as an 80-gun, Orient had been reduced to a 74-gun in early 1766[55]
- ^ Present-day Chennai
- ^ Sometimes spelt "la Pallière"[69]
- ^ one League and a half[74]
- ^ Also known as Villeneuve-Cilart [83]
- ^ When known in France, the anecdote yielded the pun that "Villeneuve-Cilart wanted to surrender, but "God" (Dieu, the name of the insubordinate officer) would not allow it".[86] Dieu would be killed on Sévère at the Battle of Cuddalore on 20 June 1783.[87]
- ^ Suffren received 10,000 rupees symbolising the gift of an elephant, which would have been inconvenient on Héros; his officers received 1,000 symbolising horses, for the same reason.[94]
- ^ The previous day, Suffren, who was overweight, had suffered from the Indian-style seating and Hyder Ali had graciously bent the etiquette to accommodate him.[95]
- Maratha–Mysore Warwas to start three years later.
- ^ Un jour, à Sainte-Hélène, Las Cases, qui avait été lieutenant de vaisseau à l'époque de la Révolution, traçait à Napoléon le portrait de l'adversaire de Hughes : « M. de Suffren, très dur, très bizarre, extrêmement égoïste, mauvais coucheur, mauvais camarade, n'était aimé de personne. ».[129]
Citations
- ^ Cunat, p.382
- ^ Les voyages du Bailli de Suffren Archived 2008-12-31 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Monaque, Suffren (2009), p.2, also cited at
- ^ a b c Hennequin (1835), p. 289.
- ^ a b c Cunat (1852), p. 3.
- ^ Geneanet: Paul de Suffren
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 2-3.
- ^ Monaque (2017), p. 85.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 9.
- ^ a b Cunat (1852), p. 10.
- ^ a b c d e Chisholm 1911.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 11.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 12.
- ^ Monaque (2017), p. 86.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 15.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 18.
- ^ a b Cunat (1852), p. 19.
- ^ a b Hennequin (1835), p. 290.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 25.
- ^ a b Cunat (1852), p. 26.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 27.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 29.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 30.
- ^ Willis 2009, p. 761.
- ^ a b c d e f Monaque (2017), p. 87.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 31.
- ^ a b c Cunat (1852), p. 32.
- ^ a b c d e Hennequin (1835), p. 291.
- ^ a b c Cunat (1852), p. 33.
- ^ Lacour-Gayet (1905), p. 456.
- ^ a b Cunat (1852), p. 37.
- ^ Hennequin (1835), p. 292.
- ^ Hepper (1994), p. 52.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 38.
- ^ a b Cunat (1852), p. 39.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 40.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 41.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 42.
- ^ Diaz de Soria (1954), p. 11.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 44.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 48.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 49.
- ^ a b c Cunat (1852), p. 63.
- ^ Lacour-Gayet (1905), p. 480.
- ^ a b Hennequin (1835), p. 294.
- ^ a b Cunat (1852), p. 50.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 62.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 65.
- ^ Hennequin (1835), p. 295.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 64.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 74.
- ^ a b Cunat (1852), p. 69.
- ^ a b Cunat (1852), p. 72.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 71.
- ^ Demerliac (1996), p. 17, n°22.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 73.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 75.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 81.
- ^ a b Cunat (1852), p. 83.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 82.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 94.
- ^ Hennequin (1835), p. 297.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 95.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 97.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 99.
- ^ Cunat, p.100
- ^ Cunat, p.101
- ^ Cunat, p.102
- ^ a b Cunat, p.104
- ^ Cunat, p.103
- ^ Cunat, p.105
- ^ Cunat, p.106
- ^ Cunat, p.108
- ^ a b Cunat, p.109
- ^ Cunat, p.111
- ^ a b Cunat, p.115
- ^ Cunat, p.116
- ^ Hennequin, p.299
- ^ a b c Hennequin, p.302
- ^ Cunat, p. 127
- ^ a b Hennequin (1835), p. 303.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 164.
- ^ a b "de Cillart (Chevalier de Cillart)". Three Deck's Forum.
- ^ Roche (2005), p. 414.
- ^ Hennequin (1835), p. 305.
- ^ a b c d Hennequin (1835), p. 306.
- ^ Lacour-Gayet (1905), p. 546.
- ^ a b Hennequin (1835), p. 304.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 177.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 179.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 180.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 201.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 217.
- ^ a b Hennequin (1835), p. 308.
- ^ a b Hennequin (1835), p. 309.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 192.
- ^ a b c Hennequin (1835), p. 311.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 193.
- ^ Caron (1996), p. 347.
- ^ a b Hennequin (1835), p. 312.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 202.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 210.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 211.
- ^ Hennequin (1835), p. 314.
- ^ Hennequin (1835), p. 316.
- ^ a b c Hennequin (1835), p. 317.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 231.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 232.
- ^ a b Hennequin (1835), p. 318.
- ^ Hennequin (1835), p. 319.
- ^ a b Hennequin (1835), p. 320.
- ^ a b Hennequin (1835), p. 321.
- ^ a b Hennequin (1835), p. 322.
- ^ Hennequin (1835), p. 323.
- ^ a b Hennequin (1835), p. 324.
- ^ Hennequin (1835), p. 326.
- ^ Hennequin (1835), p. 327.
- ^ Hennequin (1835), p. 328.
- ^ Monaque (2009), p. 320.
- ^ Monaque (2009), p. 321.
- ^ Cunat (1852), p. 338.
- ^ a b Hennequin (1835), p. 329.
- ^ Hennequin (1835), p. 330.
- ^ Hennequin (1835), p. 331.
- ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 660.
- ISBN 0-486-25509-3
- ^ Lacour-Gayet (1905), p. 502.
- ^ Monaque (2009), p. 14.
- ^ a b Lacour-Gayet (1905), p. 525.
- ^ Monaque (2009), p. 15.
- ^ Monaque (2017), p. 91.
- ^ Monaque (2017), p. 90.
References
- public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Suffren Saint Tropez, Pierre André de". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
- OCLC 463973942.
- Cunat, Charles (1852). Histoire du Bailli de Suffren. Rennes: A. Marteville et Lefas. p. 447.
- Demerliac, Alain (1996). La Marine de Louis XVI: Nomenclature des Navires Français de 1774 à 1792 (in French). Éditions Ancre. ISBN 2-906381-23-3.
- Glanchant, Roger (1976). Suffren et le temps de Vergennes (in French). Paris.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Hennequin, Joseph François Gabriel (1835). Biographie maritime ou notices historiques sur la vie et les campagnes des marins célèbres français et étrangers(in French). Vol. 2. Paris: Regnault éditeur. pp. 289–332.
- Hepper, David J. (1994). British Warship Losses in the Age of Sail, 1650–1859. Rotherfield: Jean Boudriot. ISBN 0-948864-30-3.
- OCLC 763372623.
- JSTOR j.ctv5vddxt.12., CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0
- ISBN 9791021002364.
- Mores, ed. (1888). Journal de Bord du Bailli de Suffren dans l'Inde.
- Thayer Mahan, Alfred (1890). Harding, Richard; Guimerá, Agustín (eds.). The Influence of Sea Power Upon History: 1660–1783. London: Little, Brown and Co.
- Klein, Charles-Armand (2000). Mais qui est le bailli de Suffren Saint-Tropez ?. Mémoires du Sud – Editions Equinoxe. OCLC 51607247.
- Diaz de Soria, Ollivier-Zabulon (1954). Le Marseillois, devenu plus tard le Vengeur du peuple (in French). F. Robert et fils.
- Roche, Jean-Michel (2005). Dictionnaire des bâtiments de la flotte de guerre française de Colbert à nos jours. Vol. 1. Group Retozel-Maury Millau. OCLC 165892922.
- ISBN 978-2-262-03242-5.
- S2CID 162390731.
Iconography
- Engraving by Mme de Cernel after an original by Gerard.
External links
- Media related to Pierre André de Suffren at Wikimedia Commons
- (in French) Composition de l'escadre sous Suffren aux Indes (1781–1783)[permanent dead link]