Winemaking
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Winemaking (also wine making) or vinification is the production of wine, starting with the selection of the fruit, its fermentation into alcohol, and the bottling of the finished liquid. The history of wine-making stretches over millennia. There is evidence that suggests that the earliest wine production took place in Georgia and Iran around 6000 to 5000 B.C.[1] The science of wine and winemaking is known as oenology. A winemaker may also be called a vintner. The growing of grapes is viticulture and there are many varieties of grapes.
Winemaking can be divided into two general categories: still wine production (without carbonation) and sparkling wine production (with carbonation – natural or injected). Red wine, white wine, and rosé are the other main categories. Although most wine is made from grapes, it may also be made from other plants. (See fruit wine.) Other similar light alcoholic drinks (as opposed to beer or spirits) include mead, made by fermenting honey and water, cider ("apple cider"), made by fermenting the juice of apples, and perry ("pear cider"), made by fermenting the juice of pears, and kumis, made of fermented mare's milk.
Process
There are five basic stages to the wine making process which begins with harvesting or picking.
To start primary fermentation, yeast may be added to the must for red wine, or may occur naturally as ambient yeast on the grapes (or in the air). For white wine, yeast may be added to the juice. During this fermentation, which often takes between one and two weeks, the yeast converts most of the sugars in the grape juice into ethanol (alcohol) and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide is lost to the atmosphere.
After the primary fermentation of red grapes, the free run wine is pumped off into tanks and the skins are pressed to extract the remaining juice and wine. The press wine is blended with the free run wine at the winemaker's discretion. The wine is then kept warm and the remaining sugars are converted into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
The next process in the making of red wine is malo-lactic conversion, a bacterial process which converts "crisp, green apple"
The time from harvest to drinking can vary from a few months for Beaujolais nouveau wines to over twenty years for wine of good structure with high levels of acid, tannin or sugar. However, only about 10% of all red and 5% of white wine will taste better after five years than it will after just one year.[3] Depending on the quality of grape and the target wine style, some of these steps may be combined or omitted to achieve the particular goals of the winemaker. Many wines of comparable quality are produced using similar but distinctly different approaches to their production; quality is dictated by the attributes of the starting material and not necessarily the steps taken during vinification.
Variations on the above procedure exist. With
The process produces
that require collection, treatment, and disposal or beneficial use.Synthetic wines (also known as engineered wines or fake wines) are a product that do not use grapes at all. Starting with water and ethanol, a number of additives are included, such as acids, amino acids, sugars, and organic compounds.[6]
The grapes
The quality of the grapes determines the quality of the wine more than any other factor. Grape quality is affected by variety as well as weather during the growing season, soil minerals and acidity, time of harvest, and pruning method.
Grapes are usually harvested from the vineyard from early September until early November in the northern hemisphere, and mid February until early March in the southern hemisphere. In some cool areas in the southern hemisphere (such as in Tasmania), harvesting extends into May.
The most common species of wine grape is Vitis vinifera, which includes nearly all varieties of European origin.
Harvesting and destemming
Mechanical harvesters are large tractors that straddle
Manual harvesting is the hand-picking of grape clusters from the
Destemming is the process of separating stems from the grapes. Depending on the winemaking procedure, this process may be undertaken before crushing with the purpose of lowering the development of
Crushing and primary (alcoholic) fermentation
Crushing is the process when gently squeezing the berries and breaking the skins to start to liberate the contents of the berries. Destemming is the process of removing the grapes from the rachis (the stem which holds the grapes). In traditional and smaller-scale wine making, the harvested grapes are sometimes crushed by trampling them barefoot or by the use of inexpensive small scale crushers. These can also destem at the same time. However, in larger wineries, a mechanical crusher/destemmer is used. The decision about destemming is different for red and white wine making. Generally when making white wine the fruit is only crushed, the stems are then placed in the press with the berries. The presence of stems in the mix facilitates pressing by allowing juice to flow past flattened skins. These accumulate at the edge of the press. For red winemaking, stems of the grapes are usually removed before fermentation since the stems have a relatively high tannin content; in addition to tannin they can also give the wine a vegetal aroma (due to extraction of 3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine which has an aroma reminiscent of green bell peppers). On occasion, the winemaker may decide to leave them in if the grapes themselves contain less tannin than desired. This is more acceptable if the stems have 'ripened' and started to turn brown. If increased skin extraction is desired, a winemaker might choose to crush the grapes after destemming. Removal of stems first means no stem tannin can be extracted. In these cases the grapes pass between two rollers which squeeze the grapes enough to separate the skin and pulp, but not so much as to cause excessive shearing or tearing of the skin tissues. In some cases, notably with "delicate" red varietals such as Pinot noir or Syrah, all or part of the grapes might be left uncrushed (called "whole berry") to encourage the retention of fruity aromas through partial carbonic maceration.
Most red wines derive their color from grape skins (the exception being varieties or hybrids of non-vinifera vines which contain juice pigmented with the dark Malvidin 3,5-diglucoside anthocyanin) and therefore contact between the juice and skins is essential for color extraction. Red wines are produced by destemming and crushing the grapes into a tank and leaving the skins in contact with the juice throughout the fermentation (
Most white wines are processed without destemming or crushing and are transferred from picking bins directly to the press. This is to avoid any extraction of tannin from either the skins or grapeseeds, as well as maintaining proper juice flow through a matrix of grape clusters rather than loose berries. In some circumstances winemakers choose to crush white grapes for a short period of skin contact, usually for three to 24 hours. This serves to extract flavor and tannin from the skins (the tannin being extracted to encourage protein precipitation without excessive
In the case of rosé wines, the fruit is crushed and the dark skins are left in contact with the juice just long enough to extract the color that the winemaker desires. The must is then pressed, and fermentation continues as if the winemaker was making a white wine.
Yeast is normally already present on the grapes, often visible as a powdery appearance of the grapes. The primary, or alcoholic fermentation can be done with this natural yeast, but since this can give unpredictable results depending on the exact types of yeast that are present, cultured yeast is often added to the must. One of the main problems with the use of wild ferments is the failure for the fermentation to go to completion, that is some sugar remains unfermented. This can make the wine sweet when a dry wine is desired. Frequently wild ferments lead to the production of unpleasant acetic acid (vinegar) production as a by product.
During the primary fermentation, the yeast cells feed on the sugars in the must and multiply, producing carbon dioxide gas and alcohol. The temperature during the fermentation affects both the taste of the end product, as well as the speed of the fermentation. For red wines, the temperature is typically 22 to 25 °C, and for white wines 15 to 18 °C. For every gram of sugar that is converted, about half a gram of alcohol is produced, so to achieve a 12% alcohol concentration, the must should contain about 24% sugars. The sugar percentage of the must is calculated from the measured density, the
Similar to chaptalization is amelioration. While chaptalization aims to raise final alcohol percentage through the addition of sugar, amelioration aims to raise the alcohol percentage and dilute the acidity levels through the addition of water and sugar into the grape must.[14] This wine adjustment was commonly used in New York State's cooler wine regions, such as the Finger Lakes AVA. Amelioration is also subject to federal regulations.[15]
Alcohol of more than 12% can be achieved by using yeast that can withstand high alcohol. Some yeasts can produce 18% alcohol in the wine however extra sugar is added to produce a high alcohol content.
During or after the alcoholic fermentation, a secondary, or malolactic fermentation can also take place, during which specific strains of bacteria (lactobacter) convert malic acid into the milder lactic acid. This fermentation is often initiated by inoculation with desired bacteria.
Pressing
Pressing is the act of applying pressure to grapes or pomace in order to separate juice or wine from grapes and grape skins. Pressing is not always a necessary act in winemaking; if grapes are crushed there is a considerable amount of juice immediately liberated (called free-run juice) that can be used for vinification. Typically this free-run juice is of a higher quality than the press juice.[16] Pressed juice is typically lesser in quality due to the release and increase of total phenolic compounds, as well as browning index and the C6-alcohol levels. These compounds are responsible for the herb-like taste perceived in wine with pressed grapes.[17] However, most wineries do use presses in order to increase their production (gallons) per ton, as pressed juice can represent between 15%-30% of the total juice volume from the grape.
Presses act by positioning the grape skins or whole grape clusters between a rigid surface and a movable surface and slowly decrease the volume between the two surfaces. Modern presses dictate the duration and pressure at each press cycle, usually ramping from 0
), pressed juice or wine tends to be lower in acidity with a higher pH than the free-run juice.Before the advent of modern winemaking, most presses were
With red wines, the must is pressed after primary fermentation, which separates the skins and other solid matter from the liquid. With white wine, the liquid is separated from the must before fermentation . With rose, the skins may be kept in contact for a shorter period to give color to the wine, in that case the must may be pressed as well. After a period in which the wine stands or ages, the wine is separated from the dead yeast and any solids that remained (called lees), and transferred to a new container where any additional fermentation may take place.
Pigeage
Pigeage is a
Cold stabilization
Cold stabilization is a process used in winemaking to reduce tartrate crystals (generally potassium bitartrate) in wine. These tartrate crystals look like grains of clear sand, and are also known as "wine crystals" or "wine diamonds". They are formed by the union of tartaric acid and potassium, and may appear to be [sediment] in the wine, though they are not. During the cold stabilizing process after fermentation, the temperature of the wine is dropped to close to freezing for 1–2 weeks. This will cause the crystals to separate from the wine and stick to the sides of the holding vessel. When the wine is drained from the vessels, the tartrates are left behind. They may also form in wine bottles that have been stored under very cold conditions.
Secondary (malolactic) fermentation and bulk aging
During the secondary fermentation and
The secondary fermentation usually takes place in large stainless steel vessels with a volume of several cubic meters, oak barrels or glass demijohns (also referred to as carboys), depending on the goals of the winemakers. Unoaked wine is fermented in a barrel made of stainless steel or other material having no influence on the final taste of the wine. Depending on the desired taste, it could be fermented mainly in stainless steel to be briefly put in oak, or have the complete fermentation done in stainless steel. Oak could be added as chips used with a non-wooden barrel instead of a fully wooden barrel. This process is mainly used in cheaper wine.
Amateur winemakers often use glass carboys in the production of their wine; these vessels (sometimes called demijohns) have a capacity of 4.5–54 litres (0.99–11.88 imp gal; 1.2–14.3 US gal). The kind of vessel used depends on the amount of wine that is being made, the grapes being used, and the intentions of the winemaker.
Malolactic fermentation
Malolactic fermentation occurs when lactic acid bacteria metabolize malic acid and produce lactic acid and carbon dioxide. This is carried out either as an intentional procedure in which specially cultivated strains of such bacteria are introduced into the maturing wine, or it can happen by chance if uncultivated lactic acid bacteria are present.
Malolactic fermentation can improve the taste of wine that has high levels of malic acid, because malic acid, in higher concentration, generally causes an unpleasant harsh and bitter taste sensation, whereas lactic acid is more gentle and less sour. Lactic acid is an acid found in dairy products. Malolactic fermentation usually results in a reduction in the amount of total acidity of the wine. This is because malic acid has two acid radicals (-COOH) while lactic acid has only one. However, the pH should be monitored and not allowed to rise above a pH of 3.55 for whites or a pH of 3.80 for reds. pH can be reduced roughly at a rate of 0.1 units per 1 gram/litre of tartaric acid addition.
The use of lactic acid bacteria is the reason why some chardonnays can taste "buttery" due to the production of diacetyl by the bacteria. Most red wines go through complete malolactic fermentation, both to lessen the acid of the wine and to remove the possibility that malolactic fermentation will occur in the bottle. White wines vary in the use of malolactic fermentation during their making. Lighter aromatic wines such as Riesling, generally do not go through malolactic fermentation. The fuller white wines, such as barrel-fermented chardonnay, are more commonly put through malolactic fermentation. Sometimes a partial fermentation, for example, somewhere less than 50% might be employed.
Laboratory tests
Whether the wine is aging in tanks or barrels, tests are run periodically in a
Brix (°Bx) is one measure of the soluble solids in the grape juice and represents not only the sugars but also includes many other soluble substances such as salts, acids and tannins, sometimes called
Volatile acidity test verifies if there is any steam distillable acids in the wine. Mainly present is acetic acid (the dominant component of vinegar), but lactic, butyric, propionic, and formic acid can also be found. Usually the test checks for these acids in a cash still, but there are other methods available such as HPLC, gas chromatography and enzymatic methods. The amount of volatile acidity found in sound grapes is negligible, because it is a by-product of microbial metabolism. Because acetic acid bacteria require oxygen to grow, eliminating any air in wine containers as well as addition of sulfur dioxide (SO2) will limit their growth. Rejecting moldy grapes also prevents possible problems associated with acetic acid bacteria. Use of sulfur dioxide and inoculation with a low-V.A. producing strain of Saccharomyces may deter acetic acid producing yeast. A relatively new method for removal of volatile acidity from a wine is reverse osmosis. Blending may also help – a wine with high V.A. can be filtered (to remove the microbe responsible) and blended with a low V.A. wine, so that the acetic acid level is below the sensory threshold.
Sulphur dioxide can be readily measured with relatively simple laboratory equipment. There are several methods available; a typical test involves acidification of a sample with phosphoric acid, distillation of the liberated SO2, and capture by hydrogen peroxide solution. The SO2 and peroxide react to form sulphuric acid, which is then titrated with NaOH to an end point with an indicator, and the volume of NaOH required is used to calculate the SO2 level. This method has inaccuracies associated with red wine, inefficient condensers, and excessive aspiration rate, although the results are reproducible, having an accuracy with just a 2.5–5% error,[18] which is sufficient to control the level of sulphur dioxide in wine.[19]
Blending and fining
Different batches of wine can be mixed before bottling in order to achieve the desired taste. The winemaker can correct perceived inadequacies by mixing wines from different grapes and batches that were produced under different conditions. These adjustments can be as simple as adjusting acid or tannin levels, to as complex as blending different varieties or vintages to achieve a consistent taste.
Fining agents are used during winemaking to remove
Gelatin [gelatine] has been used in winemaking for centuries and is recognized as a traditional method for wine fining, or
Besides gelatin, other fining agents for wine are often derived from animal products, such as micronized potassium caseinate (casein is milk protein), egg whites, egg albumin, bone char, bull's blood, isinglass (Sturgeon bladder), PVPP (a synthetic compound), lysozyme, and skim milk powder. Although not common, finely ground eggshell is also sometimes used.[20]
Some aromatized wines contain honey or egg-yolk extract.[20]
Non-animal-based filtering agents are also often used, such as bentonite (a volcanic clay-based filter), diatomaceous earth, cellulose pads, paper filters and membrane filters (thin films of plastic polymer material having uniformly sized holes).
Preservatives
The most common
Sulfur dioxide has two primary actions, firstly it is an anti microbial agent and secondly an anti oxidant. In the making of white wine it can be added prior to fermentation and immediately after alcoholic fermentation is complete. If added after alcoholic fermentation it will have the effect of preventing or stopping malolactic fermentation, bacterial spoilage and help protect against the damaging effects of oxygen. Additions of up to 100 mg per liter (of sulfur dioxide) can be added, but the available or free sulfur dioxide should be measured by the aspiration method and adjusted to 30 mg per liter. Available sulfur dioxide should be maintained at this level until bottling. For rose wines smaller additions should be made and the available level should be no more than 30 mg per liter.
In the making of red wine, sulfur dioxide may be used at high levels (100 mg per liter) prior to ferment to assist in color stabilization. Otherwise, it is used at the end of malolactic ferment and performs the same functions as in white wine. However, small additions (say, 20 milligrams per litre (7.2×10−7 lb/cu in)) should be used to avoid bleaching red pigments and the maintenance level should be about 20 mg/L. Furthermore, small additions (say 20 mg per liter) may be made to red wine after alcoholic ferment and before malolactic ferment to overcome minor oxidation and prevent the growth of acetic acid bacteria.
Without the use of sulfur dioxide, wines can readily suffer bacterial spoilage no matter how hygienic the winemaking practice.
Potassium sorbate is effective for the control of fungal growth, including yeast, especially for sweet wines in bottle. However, one potential hazard is the metabolism of sorbate to geraniol which is a potent and unpleasant by-product. The production of geraniol occurs only if sorbic acid is present during malo-lactic fermentation. To avoid this, either the wine must be sterile bottled or contain enough sulfur dioxide to inhibit the growth of bacteria. Sterile bottling includes the use of filtration.
Some winemakers practice natural wine making where no preservative is added. Once the wine is bottled and corked, the bottles are put into refrigeration with temperatures near 5 °C (41 °F).
Filtration
Filtration in winemaking is used to accomplish two objectives, clarification and microbial stabilization. In clarification, large particles that affect the visual appearance of the wine are removed. In microbial stabilization, organisms that affect the stability of the wine are removed therefore reducing the likelihood of re-fermentation or spoilage.
The process of clarification is concerned with the removal of particles; those larger than 5–10 millimetres (0.20–0.39 in) for coarse polishing, particles larger than 1–4 micrometers for clarifying or polishing.
Clarification of the wine can take place naturally by putting the wine into refrigeration at 35 °F (2 °C). The wine takes about a month to settle and it is clear. No chemicals are needed.
Bottling
A final dose of
Wine bottle closure methods vary greatly considering taste, closure effectiveness, and aesthetic.[24]
Regulation
In the
Winemakers
Traditionally known as a vintner, a winemaker is a person engaged in making wine. They are generally employed by wineries or wine companies, although there are many independent winemakers who make wine at home for their own pleasure or small commercial operation. Additionally, winemaking is still carried in traditional ways by families producing wine for their own consumption.
List of top 15 wine producing countries by volume.[26] (Volume in thousands of hectoliters)
Country | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Italy | 48,525 | 42,772 | 45,616 | 52,029 | 44,739 | 50,000 | 50,900 | 42,500 | 48,500 |
France | 44,381 | 50,757 | 41,548 | 42,004 | 46,698 | 47,000 | 45,200 | 36,600 | 46,400 |
Spain | 35,353 | 33,397 | 31,123 | 45,650 | 41,620 | 37,700 | 39,300 | 32,500 | 40,900 |
United States | 20,887 | 19,140 | 21,650 | 23,590 | 22,300 | 21,700 | 23,600 | 23,300 | 23,900 |
Argentina | 16,250 | 15,473 | 11,778 | 14,984 | 15,197 | 13,400 | 9,400 | 11,800 | 14,500 |
Australia | 11,420 | 11,180 | 12,260 | 12,500 | 12,000 | 11,900 | 13,100 | 13,900 | 12,500 |
South Africa | 9,327 | 9,725 | 10,569 | 10,982 | 11,316 | 11,200 | 10,500 | 10,800 | 9,500 |
China | 13,000 | 13,200 | 13,511 | 11,780 | 11,178 | 11,500 | 11,400 | 11,400 | 10,800 |
Chile | 8,844 | 10,464 | 12,554 | 12,820 | 10,500 | 12,900 | 10,100 | 9,500 | 12,900 |
Germany | 6,906 | 9,132 | 9,012 | 8,409 | 9,334 | 8,900 | 9,000 | 7,500 | 9,800 |
Portugal | 7,148 | 5,622 | 6,308 | 6,237 | 6,195 | 7,000 | 6,000 | 6,700 | 5,300 |
Romania | 3,287 | 4,058 | 3,311 | 5,100 | 3,700 | 3,600 | 3,300 | 4,300 | 5,200 |
Russian Federation | 6,400 | 6,353 | 6,400 | 5,300 | 4,900 | 5,600 | 5,200 | 4,700 | 4,700 |
Hungary | - | - | - | 2,600 | 2,400 | 2,600 | 2,500 | 2,500 | 3,400 |
Rest of the World | 27,847 | 30,906 | 27,194 | 31,000 | 27,100 | 29,800 | 29,900 | 30,900 | 30,700 |
World | 264,425 | 267,279 | 257,889 | 290,100 | 270,000 | 277,000 | 273,000 | 251,000 | 282,000 |
See also
- Winery
- Acids in wine
- Glossary of wine terms
- Governo
- History of wine
- Homebrewing
- List of wine-producing countries
- Sugars in wine
References
- ^ "Food & Beverage Service Management" (PDF).
- ^ "Wine Making Process: How to Make Wine". The International Wine of the Month Club. Retrieved 2018-07-16.
- ^ Jancis Robinson (2003). Wine Course, A guide to the world of wine. BBC worldwide Ltd. p. 39.
- ^ a b Zoecklein, Bruce. "A Review of Methode Champenoise Production" (PDF). Virginia Tech. Virginia Cooperative Extension.
- ^ Pambianchi, Daniel. "Force-Carbonating Wine to Sparkle: Counter pressure bottle method". WineMaker. Winemaker Magazine.
- ^ Sadler, Chris (17 November 2017). "I Tried a Bottle of the New Synthetic Wine". Slate. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
- ISSN 2212-9774.
- S2CID 154659688.
- ISSN 0002-8282.
- S2CID 153748415.
- S2CID 14712369.
- ISSN 2212-9774.
- ISSN 1751-1062.
- ISSN 0002-9254.
- ^ "27 CFR § 24.178 - Amelioration". LII / Legal Information Institute. Retrieved 2023-11-29.
- OCLC 27034539.
- S2CID 25099843.
- S2CID 101205169.
- ^ "Required Analytical Tests for Wineries" (PDF). Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 9, 2013.
- ^ a b c Vineyards, Jost. "The Vegan wine guide". Tastebetter.com. Archived from the original on May 31, 2008. Retrieved 2013-03-16.
- ^ Mary-Colleen Tinney (June 2006). "Sales of Screw-Capped Wine Grow 51 Percent Over 2005". Wine Business Monthly. Retrieved 2013-03-16.
- ^ Cathy Fisher (September 2007). "Capsule Manufacturers Raise Quality Bar". Wine Business Monthly. Retrieved 2013-03-16.
- ^ Bill Pregler (November 2006). "Successfully Applying Capsules on the Bottling Line". Wine Business Monthly. Retrieved 2013-03-16.
- ^ Dennis Reynolds (September 2018). "What effect does wine bottle closure type have on perceptions of wine attributes?". International Journal of Hospitality Management. Retrieved 2022-11-14.
- ^ Regulation (EU) No 1308/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 December 2013 establishing a common organisation of the markets in agricultural products and repealing Council Regulations (EEC) No 922/72, (EEC) No 234/79, (EC) No 1037/2001 and (EC) No 1234/2007, published 20 December 2013, accessed 25 September 2020.
- ^ "Top Fifteen Wine-Producing Countries". Italian Wine Central. Source: OIV, October 2017. August 2022.
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Further reading
- Thomas Pinney. The Makers of American Wine: A Record of Two Hundred Years. Berkeley. University of California Press, 2012.
- James Simpson. Creating Wine: The Emergence of a World Industry, 1840–1914. Princeton University Press, 2012.
External links
- The dictionary definition of enology at Wiktionary
- Media related to Wine production at Wikimedia Commons
- Winemaking at Curlie