Early Christianity

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Pillars of the Church
)

Early Christianity, otherwise called the Early Church or Paleo-Christianity, describes the

Patristic era
.

The

English translations of the New Testament
.

Many early Christians were merchants and others who had practical reasons for traveling to

Arabia, the Balkans, the Middle East, North Africa, and other regions.[4][5][6] Over 40 such communities were established by the year 100,[5][6] many in Anatolia, also known as Asia Minor, such as the Seven churches of Asia. By the end of the first century, Christianity had already spread to Rome, Armenia, Greece, and Syria, serving as foundations for the expansive spread of Christianity
, eventually throughout the world.

History

Origins

Second Temple Judaism

Model of the Second Temple in the Israel Museum

Christianity originated as a minor sect within Second Temple Judaism.[7] The Second Temple in Jerusalem was built c. 516 BC after the Babylonian captivity.[8] The central tenets of Judaism in this period revolved around monotheism and the belief that Jews were a chosen people. As part of their covenant with God, Jews were obligated to obey the Torah. In return, they were given the land of Israel and the city of Jerusalem where God dwelled in the Temple. Apocalyptic and wisdom literature had a major influence on Second Temple Judaism.[9]

While the

Persian Empire permitted Jews to return to Judea, there was no longer a native monarchy. Instead, political power devolved to the high priest, who served as an intermediary between the Jewish people and the empire. This arrangement continued after the region was conquered by Alexander the Great (356–323 BC).[8]

Alexander's conquests initiated the

Jews of Alexandria produced a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible called the Septuagint. The Septuagint was the translation of the Old Testament used by early Christians.[11] Diaspora Jews continued to make pilgrimage to the Temple, but they started forming local religious institutions called synagogues as early as the 3rd century BC.[12]

After Alexander's death, the region was ruled by

Hasmoneans, who ruled as kings and high priests. This independence would last until 63 BC when Judea became a client state of the Roman Empire.[13]

The Maccabean Revolt caused Judaism to divide into competing sects with different theological and political goals,

Roman Judea and Galilee were frequently troubled by insurrection and messianic claimants.[18]

House of David who would establish and reign over an idealized kingdom.[19]

In the Second Temple period, there was no consensus on who the messiah would be or what he would do.

Son of Man who brings about the resurrection of the dead and the final judgment.[22][23]

Jesus

The Holy Land in the 1st century

Christianity centers on the

canonical gospels of Matthew (c. AD 80 – c. AD 90), Mark (c. AD 70), Luke (c. AD 80 – c. AD 90), and John (written at the end of the 1st century) are ancient biographies of Jesus' life.[24]

Jesus grew up in

12 tribes of Israel (10 of which were "lost" by this time) to symbolize the full restoration of Israel that would be accomplished through him.[25]

Christ with the Two Thieves by Fra Angelico c. 1437 – c. 1446

The gospel accounts provide insight into what early Christians believed about Jesus.[26] As the Christ or "Anointed One" (Greek: Christos), Jesus is identified as the fulfillment of messianic prophecies in the Hebrew scriptures. Through the accounts of his miraculous virgin birth, the gospels present Jesus as the Son of God.[27] The gospels describe the miracles of Jesus which served to authenticate his message and reveal a foretaste of the coming kingdom.[28] The gospel accounts conclude with a description of the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus, ultimately leading to his Ascension into Heaven. Jesus' victory over death became the central belief of Christianity.[29] In the words of historian Diarmaid MacCulloch:[30]

Whether through some mass delusion, some colossal act of wishful thinking, or through witness to a power or force beyond any definition known to Western historical analysis, those who had known Jesus in life and had felt the shattering disappointment of his death proclaimed that he lived still, that he loved them still, and that he was to return to earth from the Heaven which he had now entered, to love and save from destruction all who acknowledged him as Lord.

For his followers, Jesus' death inaugurated a New Covenant between God and his people.[31] The apostle Paul, in his epistles, taught that Jesus makes salvation possible. Through faith, believers experience union with Jesus and both share in his suffering and the hope of his resurrection.[32]

While they do not provide new information, non-Christian sources do confirm certain information found in the gospels. The Jewish historian Josephus referenced Jesus in his Antiquities of the Jews written c. AD 95. The paragraph, known as the Testimonium Flavianum, provides a brief summary of Jesus' life, but the original text has been altered by Christian interpolation.[33] The first Roman author to reference Jesus is Tacitus (c. AD 56c. 120), who wrote that Christians "took their name from Christus who was executed in the reign of Tiberius by the procurator Pontius Pilate" (see Tacitus on Jesus).[34]

1st century

The decades after the crucifixion of Jesus are known as the Apostolic Age because the Disciples (also known as Apostles) were still alive.[35] Important Christian sources for this period are the Pauline epistles and the Acts of the Apostles.[36]

Initial spread

Map of Paul's 3rd missionary journey
St Paul's Pillar in Paphos

After the death of Jesus, his followers established Christian groups in cities, such as Jerusalem.[35] The movement quickly spread to Damascus and Antioch, capital of Roman Syria and one of the most important cities in the empire.[37] Early Christians referred to themselves as brethren, disciples or saints, but it was in Antioch, according to Acts 11:26, that they were first called Christians (Greek: Christianoi).[38]

According to the New Testament, Paul the apostle established Christian communities throughout the Mediterranean world.

Roman Macedonia. He then moved into mainland Greece, spending time in Athens and Corinth. While in Corinth, Paul wrote his Epistle to the Romans, indicating that there were already Christian groups in Rome. Some of these groups had been started by Paul's missionary associates Priscilla and Aquila and Epainetus.[39]

Social and professional networks played an important part in spreading the religion as members invited interested outsiders to secret Christian assemblies (Greek: ekklēsia) that met in private homes (see house church). Commerce and trade also played a role in Christianity's spread as Christian merchants traveled for business. Christianity appealed to marginalized groups (women, slaves) with its message that "in Christ there is neither Jew nor Greek, neither male nor female, neither slave nor free" (Galatians 3:28). Christians also provided social services to the poor, sick, and widows.[40]

Historian Keith Hopkins estimated that by AD 100 there were around 7,000 Christians (about 0.01 percent of the Roman Empire's population of 60 million).[41] Separate Christian groups maintained contact with each other through letters, visits from itinerant preachers, and the sharing of common texts, some of which were later collected in the New Testament.[35]

Jerusalem church

The Cenacle on Mount Zion, claimed to be the location of the Last Supper and Pentecost. Bargil Pixner[42] claims the original Church of the Apostles is located under the current structure.

Jerusalem was the first center of the

Galatians 2:9).[45]

At this early date, Christianity was still a Jewish sect. Christians in Jerusalem kept the Jewish Sabbath and continued to worship at the Temple. In commemoration of Jesus' resurrection, they gathered on Sunday for a communion meal. Initially, Christians kept the Jewish custom of fasting on Mondays and Thursdays. Later, the Christian fast days shifted to Wednesdays and Fridays (see Friday fast) in remembrance of Judas' betrayal and the crucifixion.[46]

James was killed on the order of the high priest in AD 62. He was succeeded as leader of the Jerusalem church by Simeon, another relative of Jesus.[47] During the First Jewish-Roman War (AD 66–73), Jerusalem and the Temple were destroyed after a brutal siege in AD 70.[44] Prophecies of the Second Temple's destruction are found in the synoptic gospels,[48] specifically in the Olivet Discourse.

According to a tradition recorded by

First Jewish Revolt.[49][50] The church had returned to Jerusalem by AD 135, but the disruptions severely weakened the Jerusalem church's influence over the wider Christian church.[47]

Gentile Christians

Saint Peter and Saint Paul (1570s) by Juan Fernádnez Navarrete

Jerusalem was the first center of the

kinsmen likely held leadership positions in the surrounding area after the destruction of the city until its rebuilding as Aelia Capitolina in c. 130 AD, when all Jews were banished from Jerusalem.[44]

The first Gentiles to become Christians were God-fearers, people who believed in the truth of Judaism but had not become proselytes (see Cornelius the Centurion).[51] As Gentiles joined the young Christian movement, the question of whether they should convert to Judaism and observe the Torah (such as food laws, male circumcision, and Sabbath observance) gave rise to various answers. Some Christians demanded full observance of the Torah and required Gentile converts to become Jews. Others, such as Paul, believed that the Torah was no longer binding because of Jesus' death and resurrection. In the middle were Christians who believed Gentiles should follow some of the Torah but not all of it.[52]

In c. 48–50 AD,

Classical civilization from ancient Greeks and Romans, who valued the foreskin positively.[62] The resulting Apostolic Decree in Acts 15 is theorized to parallel the seven Noahide laws found in the Old Testament.[66] However, modern scholars dispute the connection between Acts 15 and the seven Noahide laws.[65] In roughly the same time period, rabbinic Jewish legal authorities made their circumcision requirement for Jewish boys even stricter.[67]

The primary issue which was addressed related to the requirement of

Paul the Apostle and Judaism
).

The Council of Jerusalem did not end the dispute, however.

Jewish Christianity and Gentile (or Pauline) Christianity. While Jewish Christianity would remain important through the next few centuries, it would ultimately be pushed to the margins as Gentile Christianity became dominant. Jewish Christianity was also opposed by early Rabbinic Judaism, the successor to the Pharisees.[77] When Peter left Jerusalem after Herod Agrippa I tried to kill him, James appears as the principal authority of the early Christian church.[44] Clement of Alexandria (c. 150–215 AD) called him Bishop of Jerusalem.[44] A 2nd-century church historian, Hegesippus, wrote that the Sanhedrin martyred him in 62 AD.[44]

In 66 AD, the

better source needed] the Cenacle survived at least to Hadrian's visit in 130 AD. A scattered population survived.[44] The Sanhedrin relocated to Jamnia.[79] Prophecies of the Second Temple's destruction are found in the Synoptic Gospels,[48] specifically in Jesus's Olivet Discourse
.

1st century persecution

Romans had a negative perception of early Christians. The Roman historian Tacitus wrote that Christians were despised for their "abominations" and "hatred of humankind".

classical literature. They also refused to worship the Roman emperor, like Jews. Nonetheless, Romans were more lenient to Jews compared to Gentile Christians. Some anti-Christian Romans further distinguished between Jews and Christians by claiming that Christianity was "apostasy" from Judaism. Celsus, for example, considered Jewish Christians to be hypocrites for claiming that they embraced their Jewish heritage. [81]

Emperor Nero persecuted Christians in Rome, whom he blamed for starting the Great Fire of AD 64. It is possible that Peter and Paul were in Rome and were martyred at this time. Nero was deposed in AD 68, and the persecution of Christians ceased. Under the emperors Vespasian (r. 69–79) and Titus (r. 79–81), Christians were largely ignored by the Roman government. The Emperor Domitian (r. 81–96) authorized a new persecution against the Christians. It was at this time that the Book of Revelation was written by John of Patmos.[82]

Early centers

Eastern Roman Empire

Jerusalem

A diagram of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre based on a German documentary. The church is claimed to be at the site of Calvary and the Tomb of Jesus.

In the 2nd century, Roman Emperor

Jewish Messiah claimant, but Christians refused to acknowledge him as such. When Bar Kokhba was defeated, Hadrian barred Jews from the city, except for the day of Tisha B'Av, thus the subsequent Jerusalem bishops were Gentiles ("uncircumcised") for the first time.[84]

The

Christian Holy places in the Holy Land) is 313, which corresponds with the date of the Edict of Milan promulgated by the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great, which legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire. Jerusalem was later named as one of the Pentarchy, but this was never accepted by the Church of Rome.[89][90] (See also: East–West Schism#Prospects for reconciliation
).

Antioch

.

first bishop. The Gospel of Matthew and the Apostolic Constitutions may have been written there. The church father Ignatius of Antioch was its third bishop. The School of Antioch, founded in 270, was one of two major centers of early church learning. The Curetonian Gospels and the Syriac Sinaiticus are two early (pre-Peshitta) New Testament text types associated with Syriac Christianity. It was one of the three whose bishops were recognized at the First Council of Nicaea (325) as exercising jurisdiction over the adjoining territories.[93]

Alexandria

Diocese of Egypt) and probably granted Alexandria the right to declare a universal date for the observance of Easter[96] (see also Easter controversy). Some postulate, however, that Alexandria was not only a center of Christianity, but was also a center for Christian-based Gnostic
sects.

Asia Minor

Seven Churches of Asia" and the Greek island of Patmos
.

The tradition of

Bosphorus
in Constantinople.

Caesarea

Remains of the ancient Roman aqueduct in Caesarea Maritima.

Bishop of Caesarea was Zacchaeus the Publican
.

After Hadrian's siege of Jerusalem (c. 133), Caesarea became the

F. J. A. Hort and Adolf von Harnack have argued that the Nicene Creed originated in Caesarea. The Caesarean text-type
is recognized by many textual scholars as one of the earliest New Testament types.

Cyprus

better source needed
]

Damascus

The Chapel of Saint Paul, said to be Bab Kisan where St. Paul escaped from Old Damascus

baptized
.

Greece

wrote a letter to the Philippians
, c. 125.

Epirus Vetus, today a ruin on the northern part of the western Greek coast. In the Epistle to Titus, Paul said he intended to go there.[103] It is possible that there were some Christians in its population. According to Eusebius, Origen (c. 185–254) stayed there for some time[104]

better source needed
]

Berœa of Macedonia around the year 53.[citation needed] According to Acts 17, when he arrived at Athens, he immediately sent for Silas and Timotheos who had stayed behind in Berœa.[citation needed] While waiting for them, Paul explored Athens and visited the synagogue, as there was a local Jewish community. A Christian community was quickly established in Athens, although it may not have been large initially.[citation needed] A common tradition identifies the Areopagite as the first bishop of the Christian community in Athens, while another tradition mentions Hierotheos the Thesmothete.[citation needed] The succeeding bishops were not all of Athenian descent: Narkissos was believed to have come from Palestine, and Publius from Malta.[citation needed] Quadratus is known for an apology addressed to Emperor Hadrian during his visit to Athens, contributing to early Christian literature.[citation needed] Aristeides and Athenagoras also wrote apologies during this time.[citation needed] By the second century, Athens likely had a significant Christian community, as Hygeinos, bishop of Rome, write a letter to the community in Athens in the year 139.[citation needed
]

]

Thrace

Saint Athanasius near modern-day Chirpan, Bulgaria, following the Council of Serdica.[108]

Libya

Pentapolis", south of the Mediterranean from Greece, the northeastern part of modern Libya, was a Greek colony in North Africa later converted to a Roman province. In addition to Greeks and Romans, there was also a significant Jewish population, at least up to the Kitos War (115–117). According to Mark 15:21, Simon of Cyrene carried Jesus' cross. Cyrenians are also mentioned in Acts 2:10, 6:9, 11:20, 13:1. According to Byzantine legend, the first bishop was Lucius, mentioned in Acts 13:1.[citation needed
]

Western Roman Empire

Rome

River Tiber

Exactly when Christians first appeared in Rome is difficult to determine. The

Jewish Christian couple Priscilla and Aquila had recently come from Rome to Corinth when, in about the year 50, Paul reached the latter city,[109]
indicating that belief in Jesus in Rome had preceded Paul.

Historians consistently consider Peter and Paul to have been

Irenaeus of Lyons, reflecting the ancient view that the church could not be fully present anywhere without a bishop, recorded that Peter and Paul had been the founders of the Church in Rome and had appointed Linus as bishop.[115][116]

However, Irenaeus does not say that either Peter or Paul was "bishop" of the Church in Rome and several historians have questioned whether Peter spent much time in Rome before his martyrdom. While the church in Rome was already flourishing when Paul wrote his Epistle to the Romans to them from Corinth (c. 58)[117] he attests to a large Christian community already there[114] and greets some fifty people in Rome by name,[118] but not Peter, whom he knew. There is also no mention of Peter in Rome later during Paul's two-year stay there in Acts 28, about 60–62. Most likely he did not spend any major time at Rome before 58 when Paul wrote to the Romans, and so it may have been only in the 60s and relatively shortly before his martyrdom that Peter came to the capital.[119]

original head of the apostles, Peter was not the founder of any visible church succession.[120][121]

A scene showing Christ Pantocrator from a Roman mosaic in the church of Santa Pudenziana in Rome, c. 410 AD

The original seat of Roman imperial power soon became a center of church authority, grew in power decade by decade, and was recognized during the period of the

Seven Ecumenical Councils, when the seat of government had been transferred to Constantinople, as the "head" of the church.[122]

Rome and

The earliest Bishops of Rome were all Greek-speaking, the most notable of them being:

Shepherd of Hermas; and Pope Anicetus (c. 155–160), who received Saint Polycarp and discussed with him the dating of Easter.[114]

Pope Victor I (189–198) was the first ecclesiastical writer known to have written in Latin; however, his only extant works are his encyclicals, which would naturally have been issued in Latin and Greek.[125]

Greek New Testament texts were translated into Latin early on, well before Jerome, and are classified as the Vetus Latina and Western text-type.

During the 2nd century, Christians and semi-Christians of diverse views congregated in Rome, notably

Valentinius, and in the following century there were schisms connected with Hippolytus of Rome and Novatian.[114]

The Roman church survived various persecutions. Among the prominent Christians executed as a result of their refusal to perform acts of worship to the Roman gods as ordered by emperor Valerian in 258 were Cyprian, bishop of Carthage.[126] The last and most severe of the imperial persecutions was that under Diocletian in 303; they ended in Rome, and the West in general, with the accession of Maxentius in 306.

Carthage

Early Christian quarter in ancient Carthage.

Carthage, in the Roman province of Africa, south of the Mediterranean from Rome, gave the early church the Latin fathers Tertullian[127] (c. 120 – c. 220) and Cyprian[128] (d. 258). Carthage fell to Islam in 698.

The Church of Carthage thus was to the

Latin Christianity"[130][131] and "the founder of Western theology."[132] Carthage remained an important center of Christianity, hosting several councils of Carthage
.

Southern Gaul

Amphithéâtre des Trois-Gaules, in Lyon. The pole in the arena is a memorial to the people killed during the persecution
.

The Mediterranean coast of France and the

Council of Arles in 314 is considered a forerunner of the ecumenical councils. The Ephesine theory attributes the Gallican Rite to Lyon
.

Aquileia

The ancient Roman city of Aquileia at the head of the Adriatic Sea, today one of the main archaeological sites of Northern Italy, was an early center of Christianity said to be founded by Mark before his mission to Alexandria. Hermagoras of Aquileia is believed to be its first bishop. The Aquileian Rite is associated with Aquileia.

Milan

It is believed that the Church of Milan in northwest Italy was founded by the apostle Barnabas in the 1st century. Gervasius and Protasius and others were martyred there. It has long maintained its own rite known as the Ambrosian Rite attributed to Ambrose (born c. 330) who was bishop in 374–397 and one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the 4th century. Duchesne argues that the Gallican Rite originated in Milan.

Syracuse and Calabria