Piracy in the Sulu and Celebes Seas

Part of a series on the
History of the Philippines
Timeline
Prehistoric period (pre-900) Early hominin activity Homo luzonensis Tabon Man Austronesian expansion Angono Petroglyphs Lal-lo and Gattaran Shell Middens Jade culture Sa Huỳnh culture Precolonial barangay Maritime Silk Road Events/Artifacts Balangay Cordillera Rice Terraces Grave goods Kalanay Cave Maitum anthropomorphic pottery Manunggul Jar Prehistoric beads Shell tools
Precolonial period (900–1565) Historically documented states/polities (north to south) Caboloan Cainta Tondo Namayan Maynila Ibalon Ma-i Pulilu Sandao Madja-as Dapitan Cebu Butuan Sanmalan Sultanate of Maguindanao Sultanate of Buayan Sultanates of Lanao Sultanate of Sulu Events/Artifacts Maragtas Laguna Copperplate Inscription Butuan Ivory Seal Limestone tombs of Kamhantik Kabayan Mummies Baybayin Batanes Ijang fortresses Golden Tara of Agusan Monreal Stones Butuan Silver Paleograph Piloncitos Barter rings Luzones Magellan expedition Battle of Mactan
Spanish colonial period (1565–1898) Events Voyage of Miguel López de Legazpi Sandugo Treaty of Cebu Blockade of Cebu Spanish capture of Manila Battle of Bangkusay New Spain Spanish East Indies Captaincy General Tondo Conspiracy Manila galleon Revolts and uprisings Spanish–Moro conflict Battles of La Naval de Manila British invasion Propaganda Movement 1872 Cavite mutiny La Liga Filipina Katipunan Cry of Pugad Lawin Philippine Revolution Tejeros Convention Republic of Biak-na-Bato Spanish–American War Treaty of Paris (1898) Battle of Manila Bay Declaration of Independence American capture of Manila Malolos Congress First Republic Philippine–American War Artifacts Boxer Codex Doctrina Christiana UST Baybayin Documents Velarde map
American colonial period (1898–1946) Tagalog Republic Negros Republic Zamboanga Republic Military Government Moro Rebellion Insular Government Jones Law Tydings–McDuffie Act Commonwealth World War II Japanese occupation Battle of Bataan Battle of Corregidor Second Republic Philippine resistance Hukbalahap Battle of Leyte Gulf Philippines campaign
Post-independence (1946–1965) Third Republic Treaty of Manila Mutual Defense Treaty Hukbalahap Rebellion Filipino First policy North Borneo dispute
Marcos era (1965–1986) Communist rebellion Moro conflict Martial law Fourth Republic People Power Revolution
Contemporary period (1986–present) Fifth Republic 1997 Asian financial crisis 2000 campaign against the MILF 2nd People Power Revolution EDSA III Oakwood mutiny Philippine drug war Territorial disputes Siege of Marawi Bangsamoro COVID-19 pandemic
By topic Ancient religions Rulers Queen consorts Administrative divisions Agriculture Archaeology Communications Conflicts Cultural achievements Diet and health Education Economy Geography Historiography Languages Medicine Military Names Politics Science and technology World Heritage Sites
Philippines portal
v t e

The

Moro piracy is often linked to the Spanish colonial occupation of the Philippines. In a course of over two and a half centuries, Moro piratical attacks on Christian communities caused "an epoch of wholesale misery for the inhabitants".[11] After the Spanish arrival in 1521, Moro piratical raids against Christian settlements started in June 1578. These spread all over the archipelago and were conducted with impunity by organized fleets carrying weapons of destruction almost equal to those of the Spaniards.^[11] The re-curring act is often described as a reaction against the Spaniards, who had displaced the Moros from the political and economic dominance they once enjoyed in the region (e.g. strategic commercial standpoints in Mindanano).^[11] Moreover, religious differences between Muslims and Christians are frequently cited.

The Spanish engaged the Moro pirates frequently in the 1840s. The

Despite Spanish efforts to eradicate the pirate threat, piracy persisted until the early 1900s. Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States as a result of the Spanish–American War in 1898, after which American troops embarked on a pacification campaign from 1903 to 1913 that extended American rule to the southern Philippines and effectively suppressed piracy.^[7]: 12

Ships

The

Other than

Piracy reemerged in the immediate post-WWII period as a result of the deterioration of the security situation and the wide availability of military surplus engines and modern firearms[7]^: 37. Police authorities of the newly independent Philippines were unable to get hold of the traffic of arms and goods (copra and cigarettes) by rebel groups, which was fueled by the motorisation of inter-island support ^[7]: 37. Emerging pirate groups mostly stemmed from the South of the country, derived from Muslim ethnic groups. In the Northern parts of Borneo, the Tawi- Tawi pirates were specifically of concern to late British colonial rule who were said to be descendants of 19th century Samal pirates ^[7]: 37-38. The authorities in North Borneo recorded 232 pirate attacks between 1959 and 1962^[7]: 38. During this period, pirates primarily targeted barter traders engaged in the copra trade, but also attacked fishing and passenger vessels and conducted coastal raids on villages. As an example, in 1985, pirates caused chaos in the town of Lahad Datu in Sabah, killing 21 people and injuring 11 others^[15][16] Specifically the proliferation of arms which increased with armed insurgencies in the following years, contributed to the level of violence and threat posed by pirates in the region ^[7]: 42. Philippine authorities at the time, reported more than 431 deaths and 426 missing people in the course of twelve years, resulting in an intense high threat- level for the region ^[7]: 43. Victims (local seafarers and Sea Nomads) were often ordered to jump into the water (practice of ambak pare) which explains the large number of people missing^[7]: 43. The armed insurgencies of the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), founded in 1972, and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), founded in 1977, provided a new impetus to piracy, with both organisations engaging in piracy to fund their armed struggle.^[17]: 154 MNLF has engaged in the extortion of fishermen, threatening to attack them if they did not pay protection money^[7]: 111. Similarly, Abu Sayyaf, founded in the early 1990s, started to engage in piracy attacks, both to fund the organization and for personal financial gain^[17]: 155.

Contemporary piracy

2000–2014

Throughout the turn of the millennium, the threat of piracy remained high, with re-occurring attacks on small vessels and raids of towns and businesses on coastal villages in Sabah, mostly attributable to groups of the southern Philippines, as the main types of piratical activities

However, in the years of 2009-2014 an upswing in the number of attacks can be attributed to Southeast Asia again, mainly due to incidents in the Strait of Malacca and South China Sea, but also raids on towns, settlements and offshore businesses re-emerged as a security threat in the Sulu and Celebes area after 2010^[17]: 155. In 2014, then, the Philippine government signed a peace deal with the MILF, that includes details about disarmament of the fighters. Yet, violence continues due to other reasons, such as attacks by other violent groups such as Abu Sayyaf or dissatisfied MILF members^[17]: 156. Regarding the nature of piracy in the Sulu Sea, attacks are mostly perpetrated by small teams of less than ten people,

Marked by a long history of piracy, Southeast Asia as a whole saw a sharp decline of piracy and armed robbery at sea in the years 2014–2018, a reduction of 200 incidents a year to 99 in 2017.^[22] However, this development is mainly due to increased efforts and enforcement mechanisms in the Straits of Malacca and cannot be transferred to the Sulu and Celebes region.^[23] Since 2016, the nature of piracy in that porous area changed with the militant extremist group Abu Sayyaf re- entering the field and engaging in kidnapping- for ransom- activities.^[24] The years of 2016 and 2017 thereby mark a peak, with 22 incidents and 58 abducted crew members reported throughout the first year.^[25] In the beginning, mostly fishing trawlers and tug boats were targeted. After October 2016, also larger tonnage ships ended in the center of attacks.^[25]: 1 Until June 2019, ReCAAP reports 29 incidents of the abduction of crew members, documenting 10 people dead.^[26] In 2020, one incident (involving an attack on a fishing trawler on Jan 17 in Eastern Sabah) occurred and no other one has been reported up to August 2021.^[27] Nonetheless, ReCAAP continues to warn of the risk of crew abduction and urges for a re-routing from the area of the Sulu and Celebes Seas.^[27]

Nature of piracy

Contemporary attacks in the Sulu and Celebes Seas amount primarily to kidnapping for ransom (while incidents in other parts of Southeast Asia mostly constitute non- violent robberies).^[22] All attacks have been committed while the ships were underway and tug and fishing boats were the main victims of abduction of crew (due to their slow speed and low freeboard)^{[28]: 12–14}. As the assaults are often traced back to members of Abu Sayyaf, the ransom money is most likely supporting the extremist organisation. International attention arose due to the alarming cruelty hostages are abducted and detained ^[22]: 33.

State responses

Recent responses by the littoral states

Despite efforts by Malaysian and Philippine authorities to curb piracy in the Sulu Sea, the problem continues to persist.[17]^: 155 Weak maritime law enforcement, corruption, rivalries between the involved states, and unresolved territorial claims are major barriers to an effective suppression of piracy.^{[21]: 19–20} Security forces sometimes are involved in organising piratical activities as well, supplying weapons and intel to pirates.^{[19]: 278–279} The littoral nature of the Sulu Sea makes it easy for pirates to surprise victims and evade law enforcement. On land, the poor economic conditions in the area drive people to resort to various forms of crime to make a living, including piracy. Piracy, in turn, exacerbates the economic deprivation of the population, as the primary targets are locals themselves.

The continued existence of groups like Abu Sayyaf and MILF is also to blame for the prevalence of piracy. Not only do these groups engage in piracy themselves, efforts by security forces to suppress them have also drawn resources that could be used to deal with piracy.^{[20]: 38–39} These efforts may also drive the local population towards piracy, as security forces frequently harass farmers, depriving them of their livelihood.^[17]: 234 Small arms proliferation in the area is also high as a result of weak state authority and the armed struggle of these groups, making it easy for pirates to acquire weapons^[17]: 153.

Cultural factors may also play a part, with most of modern-day pirates in the Sulu Sea being descended from their historical predecessors, adding an element of cultural sanction to piracy. It has been suggested that piracy may in part be motivated by associated virtues such as honor and masculinity, which pirates can display by taking part in an operation.^[7]: 41 Piracy is also not seen as an inherently criminal activity by the population living at the edge of the Sulu Sea, which is reflected in the local languages^{[19]: 273–274}.

Piracy statistics

Piracy statistics on the incidents in the region mostly rely on reports issued by the Piracy Reporting Centre of the

Overall, the numbers differ depending on each institutions' reporting processes, sources they derive their information from, classification mechanisms, location of attacks, types of ships attacked, their status, political considerations[31]^: 18. The IMB, for example, relies on data from shipowners, whereas the ReCAAP's ISC derives their data from official staff, naval and coast guard officers^[31]: 15. Furthermore, underreporting and overreporting are also further bias factors, as shipowners or local seafarers refuse to report incidents due to different reasons. Shipmasters, for example, often fear potential disruptions in their time schedules or a rise in insurances^[31]: 16. Attacks on local craft on fishing boats and small tugs are often not noted due to the lack of infrastructure or a lack of trust to the authorities^[19]: 275. Some incidents contrarily are reported, but without specific details on the location (threat at harbor or at sea^[31]: 15. Thus, piracy statistics demand a detailed look into the circumstances of the acquisition of data and contexts surrounding the information^[31]: 17.

Gallery

• 
  Piratical Proa in Full Chase
• 
  An Iranun garay armed with a lantaka at the bow
• 
  An engagement with pirates off Sarawak in 1843
• 
  Spanish warships bombarding the Moro pirates of Balanguingui in 1848
• 
  The Spanish landing at Balanguingui by Antonio Brugada
• 
  Kris from Bali
• 
  19th century barong from the Sulu Archipelago
• 
  Garay warships in the Sulu Sea, c. 1850
• 
  A fight between Filipino pirates, Bugis trading ship, and Dutch mariners.

See also

• Piracy
• Piracy in the 21st century
• Slavery in the Sulu Sea
• Timawa
• Marina Sutil
• Barbary Pirates
• Caribbean Pirates
• Spanish–Moro conflict
• Philippine–American War
• Cross border attacks in Sabah
• Thalassocracy

References