Pogroms during the Russian Civil War
Pogroms of 1918–1920 | |
---|---|
Part of the Belorussia and Ukraine | |
Date | January 1918 November 1920 | -
Attack type | Pogrom, Genocide[1] |
Deaths | 100,000–250,000 |
Victims | Russian and Ukrainian Jews |
Perpetrators | AFSR, White movement (17-50% of killings)[2][3] Green armies Red Army (2-9% of killings)[2][4] Ukrainian People's Army (25-54% of killings)[2][5] |
Motive | Antisemitism Anti-communism |
Part of a series on |
Antisemitism |
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Category |
The pogroms during the Russian Civil War were a wave of mass murders of
Background
From 1791, Jews living in the Russian Empire were almost exclusively only allowed to live in Pale of Settlement, in the western part of the country. There was also a ban on holding state and public positions.[6] In the years 1881–1884 and 1903-1906, vast waves of pogroms took place.
During
During the withdrawal of Russian troops in 1915 from Congress Poland, under pressure from the Central Powers, the military command deported 250,000 Jews deep into Russia. 350,000 more refugees joined this number. Their property was plundered frequently.[11] The newcomers did not receive legal security in their new homes.[12]
The dispersion of the population across the territories of several countries and the division of forces during World War I meant that Jews found themselves on different sides of the
After the Tsar was overthrown on 2 April 1917, Alexander Kerensky's Provisional Government abolished the Pale of Settlement and repealed the restrictions on national and religious minorities.[6] These decisions resulted not only in the flourishing of Jewish cultural and political life, but also led many Jews to enthusiastically support the Kerensky government. At that time, the most supported political movement was Zionism, with 300,000 members. 34,000 people belonged to the General Jewish Labour Bund in 1917. At the same time, support for communism was slim: the 1922 Russian Communist Party census showed that, before 1917, only 958 members were of Jewish origin. Most Russian Jews had no reason to support communism: the Kerensky government, which granted them equality and looked favorably on their cultural development, completely satisfied them, and communism as an atheistic ideology opposed to private enterprise, was against Judaism and the livelihood of many Jews.[16]
The first major pogroms (1917-1918)
Antisemitic violence increased dramatically during the first world war in 1914.
Nearly all military or political initiatives against the Bolsheviks in Ukraine adopted antisemitic rhetoric.[19] Historian Peter Kenez has argued that antisemitism was a focal point of the anti-Bolshevik White movement's ideology, reaching a fanaticism during the revolutionary and civil war period comparable to that of the later Nazi movement.[20] Disagreeing, historians Richard Pipes and Orlando Figes have argued that White movement antisemitic activity was above all motivated by nationalist sentiment and greed.[21] Historian Oleg Budnitskii has stated that civil war antisemitic activities were inflamed by years of antisemitism in the army during the First World War; acting on the view of Jews as disloyal outsiders, imperial Russian authorities deported hundreds of thousands of Jews from areas near the front line, prompting frequent pogroms against those being deported.[22]
Antisemitism increased further after the 1917
In January 1918,
Already by the middle of the month there were pogroms in
In some cases, the communists saw the Jewish community as the bourgeoisie, their class enemies. During the withdrawal of Red Army from Chernihiv province in the spring of 1918, the Red Army, motivated by "fighting against the bourgeoisie", committed pogroms against Jews. Retreating Soviet forces are believed to have been responsible for a brutal 7-8 March pogrom in Chernihiv and Hlukhiv, where about 400 Jewish residents, including many children, were murdered within two days.[27] During the civil war period, Bolsheviks are estimated to have been responsible for 9% of pogroms, White movement forces for 17%, Ukrainian nationalists for 50%, and unaffiliated groups for the remainder.[28]
In April 1918, as a result of a coup d'état in agreement with the Central Powers, the military leader Pavlo Skoropadskyi seized power and established the Ukrainian State. At that time, the authorities issued proclamations that collectively blamed Jews for spreading anti-German sentiment and participating in the black market.[29] In March 1918 in Kiev, during the takeover of the city by the Ukrainian-German forces, haidamaks of the 3rd Haydamatsky Infantry Regiment captured and shot Jews. There were also murders in Kremenchuk and Hoholeve.[19]
In November 1918, the
In total, during the years of 1917 and 1918, there were 90 pogroms, most of which occurred between August and October 1917 and between March and May 1918.[19]
Ukrainian pogroms (January-July 1919)
In November 1918, the Ukrainian Hetmanate was replaced by Directorate of Ukraine, and on 22 January 1919, the re-established Ukrainian People's Republic carried out a unification with the West Ukrainian People's Republic. In February, Symon Petliura became the president of the Directorate. At the same time, starting in January 1919, the Red Army initiated an invasion of Ukraine from the east. In order to internally integrate its own troops, the Directorate used antisemitic agitation. Pogroms were launched on a massive scale in places where Ukrainian nationalists felt threatened. By the summer of 1919, various Ukrainian forces had murdered over 30,000 Jewish civilians.[35]
In mid-January 1919, the troops of Oles Kozyr-Zirka stationed in Ovruch killed 80 inhabitants and plundered approximately 1,200 houses. The otaman blamed the Jews who had gathered in the market square "for Bolshevism" and demanded a large ransom. Despite collecting tribute, the order to stop the pogrom was not obeyed. The events ended only with the withdrawal of the otaman's troops under the pressure of the Bolsheviks.[36] At that time, in Zhytomyr, soldiers, joined by peasants from nearby villages, started a pogrom, killing 80 people and plundering property.[37] Two months later, during the takeover of the city by the Ukrainian People's Army, a rumor was spread among the soldiers that 1,300 Christians had allegedly been murdered by Jews. It was a rumor based on the killing of 22 people by the Bolsheviks, which had actually included Jewish victims. A delegation of city officials managed to convince the commanders that the accusation was false, but it was too late to convince the rank-and-file. Despite the escape of many Jews from the city, during the pogrom that lasted five days, 317 people were murdered and many injured. Many Jews were saved by some of the city's Christian inhabitants, who provided them with shelter. The pogrom ceased with the recapture of the city by Bolshevik troops on 24 March.[38]
The
Some Bolshevik rebels tried to take over the nearby Felsztyn, but they scattered after hearing about the defeat of the Proskuriv uprising. This episode terrified the Jewish inhabitants of the town. On 17 February, several hundred Cossacks encircled Felsztyn and the next morning they unleashed a massacre. Soldiers killed residents in their homes or after dragging them out into the street, and robbed houses and shops. There were also numerous rapes. According to one eyewitness account, the head of the post office and telegraph office did not react to the incidents, although he was aware of them. As a result of the pogrom that lasted several hours, 600 out of 1,900 Jewish inhabitants of the town were murdered.[40]
Between February and April, there were fights between the Cossacks and the Bolsheviks in the area of Balta. There was a pogrom during each of the Ukrainian takeovers. In total, 100-120 Jewish inhabitants died, and almost all houses and shops were devastated.[41]
Pogroms were often repeated in the same places. Between May 1919 and March 1921 there were 11-14 riots in
In May, the violence increased. On 10 May, raiders killed 258 people and wounded 150 in the village of Kryve Ozero.[45] The forces of Nykyfor Hryhoriv showed particular cruelty. Initially, they recognized the command of the Red Army and, together with its troops, in March and April 1919 carried out operation to capture Kherson, Nikolayev and Odessa from the Allies.[46] But at the beginning of May, Hryhoriv launched an anti-Bolshevik uprising. He published a "Universal", in which he called for the overthrow of Ukrainian Soviet Republic, which he described as "foreigners from Moscow and the country where Christ was crucified".[47] In a short time, his troops committed a series of massacres.
After the capture of Trostianets on 10 May, the Jewish residents were taken to the police station building. At the same time, at a meeting of the city council, a rumor was spread about the alleged relief of Jewish relief from the vicinity. The angered crowd went to the police station building, which they shot at and threw grenades inside, before killing the wounded. From 342 to over 400 Jews died. At the same time, property was plundered and women were raped.[48] Between 15 and 22 May, a pogrom took place in Oleksandrivka, as a result of the unleashed antisemitic agitation. Hryhoriv's troops, together with a part of the local population, killed over 210 inhabitants there. Famine and epidemic typhus flared up in the village soon after.[49]
The bloodiest pogrom of that period took place in Yelysavethrad, which on 10 May was taken over by Hryhoriv's troops. His "Universal" was distributed in the streets and agitation was initiated. On 15 May, the soldiers started a pogrom. In a typical case, a group of several soldiers, after invading a house, murdered its inhabitants and plundered valuable property. Then the house was taken over by a crowd that plundered the rest of the property, loading it onto carts. In the three-day slaughter, between 1,300 and 3,000 people died, despite many cases of Christians hiding their Jewish neighbors. Almost all of the 50,000 Jewish inhabitants of Yelysavethrad were pushed into poverty. Hospitals were overcrowded with the wounded and famine broke out. Red soldiers were sent to recapture Yelysavethrad, only for them to join in the pogrom.[50][51] The pogrom in Cherkasy had a similar course, where on 15 May, Hryhoriv's troops started plundering Jewish houses and killing their inhabitants. Soon some of the townspeople joined the attackers. Despite some Christians hiding their Jewish neighbors, 700 people died in the five-day pogrom.[52]
Other pogroms committed in May by Hryhoriv's troops include the massacres in Katerynoslav (150 deaths),[53] in Kodyma (120 deaths)[54] and Oleksandrivka-Fundukliyivka (over 160 deaths).[55]
In
The situation was somewhat similar in the multiethnic Lityn. The advent of the Soviet power opened up the possibility for Jews to join the government, which some took advantage of. Initially, there were no ethnic disputes among the residents. However, when the troops of Yakiv Shepel took over the city on 14 May, they initiated a pogrom in which 100-120 people were murdered. It was also noted that peasants refused to sell food to Jews.[57]
On 12 May, the troops of Ananiy Volnets captured Haisyn. 340-350 of the town's Jewish inhabitants died in the pogrom they committed. The violence was stopped thanks to the appeal of Russian intellectuals.[58] In turn, in Radomyshl, peasant units of Dmytro Sokolovskiy initiated a series of pogroms in which 400 to 1,000 were killed.[59]
The most serious pogrom committed by Ukrainian forces in July was the Tulchyn massacre. On 14 July, the attackers killed 519 of the town's Jewish inhabitants.[60] On the other hand, the capture of Holoskiv by the troops of otaman Kozakov cost the lives of 95 Jews, and most of the settlement was devastated.[45] At the end of the month, Uman was encircled again. On 29 July, a group of haydamaks captured the city and started a pogrom, killing 150 people.[61]
On 15 July, the Seventeenth of Tammuz in the Hebrew calendar, locals turned on their Jewish neighbours in Slovechno, modern-day Zhytomyr Oblast after being told false rumours that Jews were planning to attack Gentiles, convert churches into synagogues, and force Gentiles by pressure into Judaism. More than 60 Jewish civilians were killed as an ensuing pogrom broke out and 45 to 100 injured.[62]
There was a Jewish self-defense unit in Pohrebyshche. However, when the forces of Danylo Terpylo captured the town on 18 August, the Jewish resistance collapsed. Armed groups stormed Pohrebyshche and killed 350-400 of its Jewish inhabitants within a few hours. In the same month, in the town of Justingrad-Sokolivka, Terpylo's forces kidnapped 150 Jews, demanding the release of a high ransom. The requested amount could not be collected and almost all hostages were murdered.[63]
White pogroms (September - December 1919)
Many Jews opposed collectivization and pinned their hopes on the advancing White movement. Experienced with Ukrainian pogroms, they were willing to give up their autonomy in favor of a livable life and a return to the rule of law.[64]
In September 1919, Cossack units of the Volunteer Army captured
Three weeks later, the forces of the Volunteer Army pushed the Bolsheviks out of
Some towns experienced pogroms from several sides. Bila Tserkva was such a city, where Jews were the target of violence, successively by the Ukrainian People's Army, then by Terpylo's forces, and finally by Cossack troops in the White Army. The total number of victims of pogroms in Bila Tserkva between 1919 and 1920 is given at 300-850 people.[68]
Later pogroms (1920)
The greatest escalation of anti-Jewish violence took place in
Balance and aftermath
Number of pogroms
However, the
However, the White Cossack units, especially Terek Cossacks, had the greatest share in the massacres at the hands of the Volunteer Army.[77] Pogroms were carried out mainly for the purpose of plunder and under the influence of collectively blaming the Jews for their failure in battle.[78]
The Volunteer Army controlled the Ukrainian lands between the summer of 1919 and the spring of 1920. After almost every seizure of a city by White troops, there was a pogrom against its Jewish inhabitants.[79] The violence particularly intensified in the autumn and winter, during the retreat of the White Army.[80]
According to estimates by historian J.L. Dekel-Chena, in the years 1917–1918 there were 90 pogroms.[81] Researcher Oleg Budnitskii reports that between 1918 and 1920 there were a total of 1,500 pogroms in Ukraine, in over 1,300 localities.[28] In turn, according to Milton Kleg, in 1919 alone, the number of pogroms in Ukraine was 1,326.[82]
Estimates of the number of victims and their geographical distribution
Pogroms with more than 100 victims | ||
---|---|---|
Date | Location | Number of victims |
1918 | ||
7 March | Hlukhiv | 400[19] |
1919 | ||
February – April | Balta | 100–120[41] |
15 February | Proskuriv |
1500–1600+[83] |
18 February | Skelivka | 600[84] |
22-26 March | Zhytomyr | 317[85] |
February-May | Chernobyl | 150[43] |
May | Katerynoslav | 150[53] |
May | Radomyshl | 400–1000[59] |
10 May | Kryve Ozero | 258[45] |
10-11 May | Trostianets | 342–400+[86] |
12 May | Haisyn | 340[87] |
12-14 May | Uman | 300–400[88] |
14 May | Lityn | 120[89] |
15-22 May | Oleksandrivka | 211[90] |
15-17 May | Yelysavethrad | 1300–3000[91] |
18 May | Kodyma | 120[92] |
18-20 May | Oleksandrivka-Fundukliyivka | 160+[93] |
16-20 May | Cherkasy | 700[94] |
17 April | Dubove | 300–800[69] |
11 July | Tulchyn | 519[95] |
11 August | Yelysavethrad | 1,000[96] |
August | Cherkasy | 250[94] |
22 August | Pohrebyshche | 350–400[97] |
23-26 September | Fastov |
1300–1800[98] |
16-20 October | Kiev |
500–600[99] |
1919-1920 | Bila Tserkva | 300–850[100] |
1920 | ||
26 March | Tetiyev |
4000–5000[69] |
According to Peter Kenez, the pogroms of Jewish civilians in Ukraine in 1918–1920 were the largest case of mass murder against Jews before the
According to various sources, between 50,000 and 250,000 people died. The number of 50-60 thousand victims is given as the lower bound.[103] Eli Heifetz, chairman of the All-Ukrainian Committee for Aid to Victims of the Pogrom, in 1921, on the basis of the data available to him, estimated the number of deaths at 120,000.[104] The same conclusions were reached in 1999 by David Vital.[35] According to Manus Midlarsky and Yitzhak Arad's 2005 and 2009 estimates, the death toll was 150,000. These estimates included those who died as a result of wounds, as well as victims of hunger and epidemics of infectious diseases following pogroms.[105] Lidia Miliakova wrote that 125,000 Jews were killed in Ukraine and 25,000 in Belorussia.[106] Oleg Budnitskii in his monograph mentions 200,000 victims as an upper estimate.[28] In turn, according to Peter Kenez, the death toll amounted to a quarter of a million people.[18]
According to Lidia Miliakova the majority (78%) of pogroms occurred in Ukraine, while 14% and 8% happened in Belorussia and Russia respectively.[107]
Estimates of other losses
Based on the partial reports of the Red Cross, Eli Heifetz estimated that more than one million people suffered material losses.[104] About 50,000-300,000 children were left orphans and half a million inhabitants were driven out of their homes or left.[108][109] According to Z. Gitelman, in the years 1918–1921, 70–80% of the Jewish population was without regular income, although the Soviet ban on private trade was a partial cause of unemployment.[110]
Estimates of the contribution of the forces carrying out the pogroms
Anglo-Jewish writer Israel Zangwill wrote that:
It is as Bolsheviks that the Jews of South Russia have been massacred by the armies of
Manus Midlarsky and Oleg Budnitskii reported that, according to earlier estimates, the Ukrainian People's Army caused 54% of the casualties, the White Army caused 17%, and the Red Army caused 2%. According to recent analyses carried out after the opening of the Russian archives, the percentage of homicides at the hands of the White Volunteer Army may even reach 50%.[2] The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe said that remaining pogroms (25%) were committed by independent groups, followed by the White Army at 17%, and the Soviets at 9%.[28] YIVO also gives an estimate of 38 people killed in the average pogrom by Ukrainian forces, 25 in the average White pogrom, and 7 in the average Red pogrom.[28][3]
The involvement in the pogroms of the anarchist
See also
- Pogroms in the Russian Empire
- The Cossack riotsof 1648 in Ukraine, in which 40-50,000 Jews were killed primarily by the Cossack forces of Bohdan Khmelnytsky.
- Antisemitism in Ukraine
- History of the Jews in Ukraine
- Pogroms in Belorussia during the Russian Civil War
References
- ^ a b "UN Whitaker Report on Genocide, 1985, paragraphs 14 to 24 pages 5 to 10» ". preventgenocideinternational. Archived from the original on 2019-06-13.
- ^ a b c d Budnitskii 2012, p. 217; Midlarsky 2005, p. 45.
- ^ a b "YIVO | Russian Civil War". yivoencyclopedia.org. Retrieved 2022-11-08.
- ^ "YIVO | Russian Civil War". yivoencyclopedia.org. Retrieved 2022-11-08.
- ^ "YIVO | Russian Civil War". yivoencyclopedia.org. Retrieved 2022-11-08.
- ^ a b Heifetz 1921, p. 8.
- ^ Budnitskii 2012, p. 232; Kenez 2004, p. 292.
- ^ Budnitskii 2012, pp. 225–228.
- ^ Budnitskii 2012, p. 237.
- ^ Budnitskii 2012, p. 228.
- ^ Budnitskii 2012, pp. 233–235.
- ^ Kenez 2004, p. 291.
- ^ Budnitskii 2012, pp. 226–232.
- ^ Kenez 2004, p. 293.
- ^ Budnitskii 2012, p. 242.
- ^ Gitelman 2001, pp. 60–64; Midlarsky 2005, p. 47.
- ^ Budnitskii 2012, pp. 224–225.
- ^ a b Kenez 2004, p. 292.
- ^ a b c d Dekel-Chen 2010, p. 84.
- ^ Budnitskii 2012, pp. 222–223.
- ^ Budnitskii 2012, pp. 223–224.
- ^ Budnitskii 2012, pp. 225–234.
- ^ a b Budnitskii 2012, pp. 240–244.
- ^ Kenez 1977, p. 167.
- ^ Heifetz 1921, pp. 13–15.
- ^ a b Dekel-Chen 2010, pp. 83–84.
- ^ Budnitskii 2012, p. 245; Dekel-Chen 2010.
- ^ a b c d e Budnitskii 2012, p. 217.
- ^ Kenez 2004, p. 294.
- ^ David Engel. Poles, Jews, and Historical Objectivity. Slavic Review, Vol. 46, No. 3/4 (Autumn - Winter, 1987), pp. 568-580. See also Mission of The United States to Poland, Henry Morgenthau, Sr. Report
- ^ a b Andrzej Kapiszewski, Controversial Reports on the Situation of the Jews in Poland in the Aftermath of World War Archived 2007-10-06 at the Wayback Machine Studia Judaica 7: 2004 nr 2(14) s. 257-304 (pdf)
- ^ Norman Davies. "Ethnic Diversity in Twentieth Century Poland." In: Herbert Arthur Strauss. Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism, 1870-1933/39. Walter de Gruyter, 1993.
- ^ a b Vital 1999, p. 717.
- ^ Heifetz 1921, pp. 27–30, 185–200.
- ^ Slutsky & Spector 2007j, p. 524.
- ^ Heifetz 1921, pp. 44–47.
- ^ Arad 2009, p. 13; Heifetz 1921, pp. 39–42, 202–227; Slutsky & Spector 2007i, p. 531-587; Vital 1999, p. 715.
- ^ Arad 2009, p. 13; Heifetz 1921, pp. 43, 227–234.
- ^ a b Heifetz 1921, pp. 402–403.
- ^ Federation 1921; Slutsky & Spector 2007b, p. 134; Slutsky & Spector 2007g, pp. 252–253.
- ^ a b Slutsky & Spector 2007d, p. 597.
- ^ Heifetz 1921, pp. 148–156.
- ^ a b c Heifetz 1921, p. 408.
- ^ Adams 1963, pp. 176–177, 180–181, 201.
- ^ Heifetz 1921, pp. 68, 244.
- ^ Heifetz 1921, pp. 167, 393–402; Slutsky & Spector 2007g, pp. 252–253.
- ^ Heifetz 1921, pp. 275–276.
- ^ Arad 2009, p. 13; Budnitskii 2012, p. 218; Heifetz 1921, pp. 243–248; Slutsky & Spector 2007f, pp. 187–188.
- ^ a b McGeever, Brendan (2019-07-31). "Red Antisemitism: Anti-Jewish Violence and Revolutionary Politics in Ukraine, 1919". Quest. Issues in Contemporary Jewish History. Retrieved 2022-12-06.
- ^ Heifetz 1921, pp. 248–272; Slutsky & Spector 2007c, pp. 594–595.
- ^ a b Slutsky & Spector 2007e, pp. 724–725.
- ^ Federation 1921, p. 8; Heifetz 1921, pp. 407–408.
- ^ Heifetz 1921, pp. 306–308.
- ^ Heifetz 1921, pp. 312–341; Slutsky & Spector 2007k, pp. 244–245.
- ^ Heifetz 1921, pp. 389–390.
- ^ Federation 1921; Heifetz 1921, pp. 405–406.
- ^ a b Arad 2009, p. 14; Slutsky & Spector 2007h, p. 58.
- ^ Federation 1921; Spector & Wigoder 2001, p. 1340.
- ^ Heifetz 1921, pp. 350–351.
- ^ Murav, Harriet (2019-08-04). "Archive of Violence: Neighbors, Strangers, and Creatures in Itsik Kipnis's "Months and Days"". Quest. Issues in Contemporary Jewish History. Retrieved 2022-12-01.
- ^ Tcherikower 1965.
- ^ Heifetz 1921, p. 100; Kenez 2004, p. 300; Midlarsky 2005, p. 47; Vital 1999, p. 720.
- ^ Arad 2009, p. 14; Budnitskii 2012, p. 218; Klier 2005, p. 636; Slutsky & Spector 2007i, pp. 531–587.
- ^ Heifetz 1921, p. 112.
- ^ Arad 2009, p. 14; Heifetz 1921, pp. 111–112.
- ^ Federation 1921, pp. 10–11; Slutsky & Spector 2007a, pp. 278–279.
- ^ a b c Midlarsky 2005, p. 46.
- ^ "Ukrainian Neighbors: Pogroms and Extermination in Ukraine 1919-1920". Quest. Issues in Contemporary Jewish History. Retrieved 2023-05-30.
- ^ Kenez 2004, p. 300.
- ^ Budnitskii 2012, p. 220.
- ^ Heifetz 1921, p. 104; Klier 2005, p. 636; Midlarsky 2005, p. 50.
- ^ Budnitskii 2012, p. 246; Kenez 2004, p. 298.
- ^ Gitelman 2001, p. 65.
- ^ Pipes 2011, p. 118.
- ^ Budnitskii 2012, pp. 220–223.
- ^ Budnitskii 2012, pp. 223, 247.
- ^ Budnitskii 2012, p. 253; Heifetz 1921, p. 111.
- ^ Budnitskii 2012, p. 253.
- ^ Dekel-Chen 2010, p. 87.
- ^ Kleg 2001, p. 4.
- ^ Arad 2009, p. 13; Heifetz 1921, p. 226; Vital 1999, p. 715.
- ^ Arad 2009, p. 13; Heifetz 1921, p. 233.
- ^ Heifetz 1921, p. 46.
- ^ Heifetz 1921, pp. 167, 393.
- ^ Federation 1921, p. 12; Heifetz 1921, p. 405.
- ^ Heifetz 1921, p. 323.
- ^ Heifetz 1921, p. 389.
- ^ Heifetz 1921, p. 275.
- ^ Budnitskii 2012, p. 218; Heifetz 1921, p. 247.
- ^ Federation 1921, p. 8; Heifetz 1921, p. 407.
- ^ Heifetz 1921, p. 307.
- ^ a b Slutsky & Spector 2007c, pp. 594–595.
- ^ Federation 1921, p. 12; Spector & Wigoder 2001, p. 1340.
- ^ Slutsky & Spector 2007f, pp. 187–188.
- ^ Federation 1921, p. 12.
- ^ Arad 2009, p. 14; Budnitskii 2012, p. 218; Klier 2005, p. 636.
- ^ Arad 2009, p. 14; Heifetz 1921, p. 112.
- ^ Federation 1921, p. 12; Slutsky & Spector 2007a, pp. 278–279.
- ^ Kenez 1977, p. 166.
- ^ Midlarsky 2005, p. 51.
- ^ Klier 2010; Vital 1999, p. 717.
- ^ a b Heifetz 1921, p. 180.
- ^ Arad 2009, p. 14; Midlarsky 2005, p. 45.
- ^ Miliakova 2010, p. 17.
- ^ Miliakova 2010, p. 38.
- ^ Budnitskii 2012; Gartner 2001, p. xxii; Heifetz 1921, p. 182.
- ^ Arad 2009, p. 14.
- ^ Gitelman 2001, p. 82.
- ^ Quoted in The Jews of the Soviet Union since 1917 by Nora Levin page 43. New York 1988
- OCLC 868808983.
- ^ Shubin 2010, p. 172.
- ^ "Trudoliubovka Pogrom – date and perpetrators". kehilalinks.jewishgen.org. Retrieved 2022-11-08.
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