Pokhran-II

Coordinates: 27°04′44″N 71°43′20″E / 27.07889°N 71.72222°E / 27.07889; 71.72222
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Pokhran-II
Operation Shakti
Underground tests (underground, underground shaft)
Device typeFission and Fusion
Max. yield45 kilotons of TNT (190 TJ) tested;[1]
Scale down of 200 kt model
Test chronology
← Pokhran-I (Operation Smiling Buddha)
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The Pokhran-II tests were a series of five

nuclear bomb test explosions conducted by India at the Indian Army's Pokhran Test Range in May 1998.[3] It was the second instance of nuclear testing conducted by India; the first test, code-named Smiling Buddha, was conducted in May 1974.[4]

The tests achieved their main objective of giving India the capability to build

kilotons.[1] The then-Chairman of the Indian Atomic Energy Commission described each one of the explosions of Pokhran-II to be "equivalent to several tests carried out by other nuclear weapon states over decades".[5] Subsequently, India established computer simulation capability to predict the yields of nuclear explosives whose designs are related to the designs of explosives used in this test.[1]

Pokhran-II consisted of five detonations, the first of which was a

fission bombs.[3] The tests were initiated on 11 May 1998, under the assigned code name Operation Shakti, with the detonation of one fusion and two fission bombs.[3] On 13 May 1998, two additional fission devices were detonated,[6] and the Indian government led by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee shortly convened a press conference to declare India as a full-fledged nuclear state.[6] The tests resulted in a variety of sanctions
against India by a number of major countries including Japan and the United States.

Many names have been assigned to these tests; originally these were collectively called Operation Shakti–98, and the five nuclear bombs were designated Shakti-I through to Shakti-V. More recently, the operation as a whole has come to be known as Pokhran-II, and the 1974 explosion as Pokhran-I.[7]

India's nuclear bomb project

Efforts towards building the

nuclear physicist Homi Bhabha began persuading the Indian National Congress towards the harnessing of nuclear energy— a year later he established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR).[8]

In 1950s, the preliminary studies were carried out at the

nuclear program slowed down when Vikram Sarabhai became its head and Lal Bahadur Shastri showed little interest after becoming the Prime Minister in that year.[8]

After

nuclear program was consolidated when physicist Raja Ramanna joined the efforts. Another nuclear test by China eventually led to India's decision to build nuclear weapons in 1967 and conduct its first nuclear test, Smiling Buddha, in 1974.[9]

Post-Smiling Buddha

Responding to Smiling Buddha,

hydrogen bomb design.[11]

In the aftermath of the

M. Srinivasan, a mechanical engineer, but progress was slow.[11]

The nuclear program received little attention from Prime Minister Morarji Desai who was renowned for his peace advocacy.[11] In 1978, Prime Minister Desai transferred physicist Ramanna to Indian MoD, and his government once again accelerated India's nuclear program.[11][12]

Shortly thereafter, the world discovered the Pakistan's clandestine atomic bomb program.[11] Contrary to India's nuclear program, Pakistan's atomic bomb program was akin to United States Manhattan Project, in that it was under military oversight with civilian scientists in charge of the scientific aspects of the program.[11] The Pakistan's secretive atomic bomb program was well funded and organised; India realised that Pakistan was very likely to succeed in its project in matter of two years.[11]

In 1980, the

missile programme, began under Dr. A.P.J Abdul Kalam, who was then an aerospace engineer.[11]

Political momentum: 1988–1998

During the 1998 Indian general election, BJP's Atal Bihari Vajpayee promised to carry out nuclear tests.

In 1989, the

Indian Missile Program succeeded in the development of the Prithvi missiles
.

Successive governments in India decided to observe this temporary moratorium for fear of inviting international criticism.

two countries.[14]

Diplomatic tensions escalated between

Kashmir problem" as a continuing threat to peace and security in the region.[17] The Indian delegation headed by Atal Bihari Vajpayee at the United Nations, reiterated that the "UN resolutions only call upon Pakistan— the occupying force to vacate the "Jammu and Kashmir Area."[17]

1998 Indian general elections

Main articles:
Indian politics

The BJP, came to power in 1998 general elections with an exclusive public mandate.[6] BJP's political might had been growing steadily in strength over the past decade over several issues.

In Pakistan, the similar

nuclear testing and declared that "there is no compromise on national security; all options including the nuclear options will be exercised to protect security and sovereignty."[6]

Consultation began between

missile program. On 28 March 1998, Prime Minister Vajpayee asked the scientists to make preparations in the shortest time possible, and preparations were hastily made.[19]

Pakistan, at a Conference on Disarmament, said it would offered a peace agreement with India for "an equal and mutual restraint in conventional, missile and nuclear fields."[6] Pakistan's equation was later reemphasised on 6 April and the momentum in India for nuclear tests began to build up which strengthened Vajpayee's position to order the tests.[6]

Preparations for the test

Main articles:
Indo-US Relations
US Marine Intelligence
maps showing the Indian test site, 1997.

Unlike Pakistan's

CIA had been detecting Indian test preparations since 1995. Therefore, the tests required complete secrecy in India and also needed to avoid detection by other countries.[20] The 58th Engineer Regiment of the Indian Army Corps of Engineers was commissioned to prepare the test sites to avoid detection by the United States spy satellites. The 58th Engineer's commander Colonel Gopal Kaushik supervised the test preparations and ordered his "staff officers take all measures to ensure total secrecy."[20]

Extensive planning was done by a small group of scientists, senior military officers and senior politicians to ensure that the test preparations would remain secret, and even senior members of the

Dr. R. Chidambaram, the director of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), were the chief coordinators of this test planning.[6] The scientists and engineers of the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), the Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMDER), and the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) were involved in the nuclear weapon assembly, layout, detonation and data collection.[6] A small group of senior scientists were involved in the detonation process. All scientists were required to wear army uniforms to preserve the secrecy of the tests. Since 1995, the 58th Engineer Regiment had learned how to avoid satellite detection.[6] Work was mostly done during night, and equipment was returned to the original place to give the impression that it was never moved.[6]

Bomb shafts were dug under camouflage netting and the dug-out sand was shaped like dunes. Cables for sensors were covered with sand and concealed using native vegetation.[6] Scientists would not depart for Pokhran in groups of two or three.[6] They travelled to destinations other than Pokhran under pseudonyms, and were then transported by the army. Technical staff at the test range wore military uniforms, to prevent detection in satellite images.[20]

Nuclear weapon designs and development

Development and test teams

The main technical personnel involved in the operation were:[21]

A. P. J. Abdul Kalam headed the team of scientists and engineers for the nuclear explosion.
  • Project Chief Coordinators :
    • Dr.
      DRDO
      .
    • Dr. R. Chidambaram, chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission and the Department of Atomic Energy.
  • Defence Research & Development Organization
    (DRDO) :
  • Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research :
    • Dr. G. R. Dikshitulu; senior research scientist B.S.O.I Group, Nuclear Materials Acquisition.
  • Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) :
    • Dr. Anil Kakodkar, director of BARC.
    • Dr. Satinder Kumar Sikka, director; Thermonuclear Weapon Development.
    • Dr. M. S. Ramakumar, director of Nuclear Fuel and Automation Manufacturing Group; Director, Nuclear Component Manufacture.
    • Dr. D.D. Sood, director of Radiochemistry and Isotope Group; director, Nuclear Materials Acquisition.
    • Dr. S.K. Gupta, Solid State Physics and Spectroscopy Group; director, Device Design & Assessment.
    • Dr. G. Govindraj, associate director of Electronic and Instrumentation Group; director, field instrumentation.

Movement and logistics

Main articles: Military logistics and Indian Army Corps of Engineers
Pokhran Test Range
, is located.

Three laboratories of the

AN-32 commanded by Squadron Leader Mahendra Prasad Sharma to Jaisalmer. They were transported to Pokhran in an army convoy of four trucks, and this required three trips. The devices were delivered to the device preparation building, which was designated as 'Prayer Hall'.[21]

The test sites was organised into two government groups and were fired separately, with all devices in a group fired at the same time. The first group consisted of the thermonuclear device (Shakti I), the fission device (Shakti II), and a sub-kiloton device (Shakti III). The second group consisted of the remaining two sub-kiloton devices Shakti IV and V. It was decided that the first group would be tested on 11 May and the second group on 13 May. The thermonuclear device was placed in a shaft code named 'White House', which was approximately 230 metres [m] (750 ft) [22]deep, the fission bomb was placed in a 150 metres (490 ft) deep shaft code named 'Taj Mahal', and the first sub-kiloton device in 'Kumbhkaran'. The first three devices were placed in their respective shafts on 10 May, and the first device to be placed was the sub-kiloton device in the 'Kumbhkaran' shaft, which was sealed by the army engineers by 8:30 pm. The thermonuclear device was lowered and sealed into the 'White House' shaft by 4 am, and the fission device being placed in the 'Taj Mahal' shaft was sealed at 7:30 am, which was 90 minutes before the planned test time. The shafts were L-shaped, with a horizontal chamber for the test device.[21]

The timing of the tests depended on the local weather conditions, with the wind being the critical factor. The tests were underground, but due to a number of shaft seal failures that had occurred during tests conducted by the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, the sealing of the shaft could not be guaranteed to be leak-proof. By early afternoon, the winds had died down and the test sequence was initiated. Dr. K. Santhanam of the DRDO, in charge of the test site preparations, gave the two keys that activated the test countdown to Dr. M. Vasudev, the range safety officer, who was responsible for verifying that all test indicators were normal. After checking the indicators, Vasudev handed one key each to a representative of BARC and the DRDO, who unlocked the countdown system together. At 3:45 pm the three devices were detonated.[21]

Specifications and detonation

Five nuclear devices were tested during Operation Shakti.[23] Four of the devices were weapon-grade plutonium[21] and one Thorium/U-233. They were:[21][1]

An additional, sixth device (Shakti VI) is suspected to have been present but not detonated.[21]

At 3:43 pm IST; three nuclear bombs (specifically, the Shakti I, II and III) were detonated simultaneously, as measured by international seismic monitors.[6] On 13 May, at 12.21 p.m. IST (6:51 UTC), two sub-kiloton devices (Shakti IV and V) were detonated. Due to their very low yield, these explosions were not detected by any seismic station.[6] On 13 May 1998, India declared the series of tests to be over after this.[25]

Announcement

Having tested weaponized nuclear warheads in the Pokhran-II series, India became the sixth country to join the

nuclear club.[26] Shortly after the tests, a press meet was convened at the Prime Minister's residence in New Delhi. Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee
appeared before the press corps and made the following short statement:

Today, at 15:45 hours, India conducted three underground nuclear tests in the Pokhran range. The tests conducted today were with a fission device, a low yield device and a thermonuclear device. The measured yields are in line with expected values. Measurements have also confirmed that there was no release of radioactivity into the atmosphere. These were contained explosions like the experiment conducted in May 1974. I warmly congratulate the scientists and engineers who have carried out these successful tests.[27][28]

Reactions to tests

Domestic reactions

News of the tests were greeted with jubilation and large-scale approval by society in India.

BJP of trying to use the tests for political ends rather than to enhance the country's national security.[29]

By the time India had conducted tests, the country had a total of $44bn in loans in 1998, from the IMF and the World Bank.[30] The industrial sectors of the Indian economy, such as the chemicals industry, were likely to be hurt by sanctions.[30] The Western consortium companies, which had invested heavily in India, especially in construction, computing and telecoms, were generally the ones who were harmed by the sanctions.[30] In 1998, Indian government announced that it had already allowed for some economic response and was willing to take the consequences.[30]

International reactions

Canada, Japan, and other countries

Strong criticism was drawn from Canada on India's actions and its

High Commissioner.[31] Sanctions were also imposed by Japan on India and consisted of freezing all new loans and grants except for humanitarian aid to India.[32]

Some other nations also imposed sanctions on India, primarily in the form of suspension of foreign aid to India and government-to-government credit lines.[33] However, the United Kingdom, France, and Russia refrained from condemning India.[33]

China

On 12 May the Chinese Foreign Ministry stated: "The Chinese government is seriously concerned about the nuclear tests conducted by India," and that the tests "run counter to the current international trend and are not conducive to peace and stability in South Asia.".

Foreign Minister of the People's Republic of China Qian Qichen was quoted as saying that India's nuclear tests were a "serious matter," particularly because they were conducted in light of the fact that more than 140 countries have signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. "It is even more unacceptable that India claims to have conducted the tests to counter what it called a "China threat".[35] On 24 November 1998, the Chinese Embassy, New Delhi
issued a formal statement:

(sic).... But regrettably, India conducted nuclear tests last May, which has run against the contemporary historical trend and seriously affected peace and stability in South Asia. Pakistan also conducted nuclear tests later on. India's nuclear tests have not only led to the escalation of tensions between India and Pakistan and provocation of nuclear arms races in South Asia, but also dealt a heavy blow to international nuclear disarmament and the global nonproliferation regime. It is only natural that India's nuclear tests have met with extensive condemnation and aroused serious concern from the international community.

— Embassy of China, New Delhi[36]

Pakistan

Main article:
India-Pakistan relations

The most vehement and strong reaction to India's

Foreign Minister Gohar Ayub Khan indicated that Pakistan was ready to conduct a nuclear test. He stated: "Pakistan is prepared to match India, we have the capability.... We in Pakistan will maintain a balance with India in all fields", he said in an interview. "We are in a headlong arms race on the subcontinent."[6]

On 13 May 1998, Pakistan bitterly condemned the tests, and Foreign Minister Gohar Ayub was quoted as saying that Indian leadership seemed to "have gone berserk [sic] and was acting in a totally unrestrained way."

Islamic world in support of Pakistan and criticised India for nuclear proliferation.[6]

Chagai and Kharan test site were conducted fifteen days after India's last test. The total yield of the tests was reported to be 40 kt (see codename: Chagai-I).[39]

Pakistan's subsequent tests invited similar condemnation from the United States.

Kirana-I).[41]

Pakistan's leading

nuclear physicist, Pervez Hoodbhoy, held India responsible for Pakistan's nuclear test experiments in Chagai.[42]

United States

The United States issued a strong statement condemning India and promised that

intelligence community was embarrassed as there had been "a serious intelligence failure of the decade" in detecting the preparations for the test.[43]

In keeping with its preferred approach to

recent decades, and in compliance with the 1994 anti-proliferation law, the United States imposed economic sanctions on India.[44] The sanctions on India consisted of cutting off all assistance to India except humanitarian aid, banning the export of certain defence material and technologies, ending American credit and credit guarantees to India, and requiring the US to oppose lending by international financial institutions to India.[45]

From 1998 to 1999, the United States held series of bilateral talks with India over the issue of India becoming a part of the

treaty as it was not consistent with India's national security interest.[47]

UN condemnation

Main article: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1172

The reactions from abroad started immediately after the tests were advertised. On 6 June, the

UN Security Council adopted Resolution 1172, condemning the Indian and the Pakistani tests.[48] China issued a vociferous condemnation calling upon the international community to exert pressure on India to sign the NPT and to eliminate its nuclear arsenal. With India joining the group of countries possessing nuclear weapons, a new strategic dimension had emerged in Asia, particularly in South Asia.[48]

Legacy

Main article: Public holidays in India

The

nuclear tests that were carried out on 11 May 1998.[49]

It was officially signed by then-Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in 1998 and the day is celebrated by giving awards to various individuals and industries in the field of science and technology.[49]

In popular culture

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f "Press Statement by Dr. Anil Kakodkar and Dr. R. Chidambaram on Pokhran-II tests". Press Information Bureau, Government of India. 24 September 2009. Archived from the original on 24 October 2017.
  2. S2CID 57565560
    .
  3. ^ a b c CNN India Bureau (17 May 1998). "India releases pictures of nuclear tests". CNN India Bureau. CNN India Bureau. Retrieved 14 June 2015. {{cite news}}: |last1= has generic name (help)
  4. ^ "Official press release by India". meadev.gov.in/. Ministry of External Affairs, 1998. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
  5. ^ "We have an adequate scientific database for designing ... a credible nuclear deterrent". Frontline. 16. 2–15 January 1999. Archived from the original on 28 October 2019.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u "The nuclear politics: The 1998 Election". Nuclear weapon archives. Nuclear politics. Retrieved 16 January 2013.
  7. ^ "Why May 11 be celebrated as National Technology Day? Things you should know". Times of India. 11 May 2020.
  8. ^ a b "Homi Bhabha and how World War II was responsible for creating India's nuclear future". The print. 30 October 2019.
  9. ISBN 978-0-415-21484-1
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  10. ^ "Smiling Buddha: All about Pokhran test that made India a nuclear power". The Indian Hawk | Indian Defence News. 19 May 2020. Retrieved 5 July 2020.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Sublette, Carey. "The Long Pause: 1974–1989". nuclearweaponarchive.org. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
  12. ISBN 81-7223-330-2
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  13. ^ a b c d e weapon archive. "The Momentum builds". Nuclear weapon Archive. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
  14. ^ "India wants to divert attention from N-test plan". Dawn Archives. CNN. 4 January 1996. Retrieved 16 January 2013.
  15. ^ "UN General Assembly—11th Meeting official records" (PDF). documents-dds-ny.un.org. Retrieved 24 May 2018.
  16. ^ Team, ODS. "UN General Assembly—10th Meeting official records" (PDF). documents-dds-ny.un.org. Retrieved 24 May 2018.
  17. ^ a b c Masood Haider (5 September 1995). "Pakistan's raising of Kashmir issue upsets India". Dawn. Retrieved 19 November 2011.
  18. 1997 Pakistani general elections
  19. ^ (PTI), Press Trust of India (September 2009). "Pokhran II row: Sethna slams Kalam, Iyengar says tests were done in haste". DNA News. dna news. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
  20. ^ a b c d e "Books: Weapons of Peace—How the CIA was Fooled". India Today. Archived from the original on 12 January 2016. Retrieved 30 October 2006.
  21. ^ a b c d e f g h "India's Nuclear Weapons Program—Operation Shakti: 1998". 30 March 2001. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
  22. ^ "Spectral defence". frontline.thehindu.com. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
  23. ^ "Forces gung-ho on N-arsenal". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 21 May 2013. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
  24. reactor-grade", it may have been fuel-grade, which is intermediate between the former and weapons-grade; cf. Why You Can’t Build a Bomb From Spent Fuel Archived 20 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  25. ^ Press Release (13 May 1998). "Planned Series of Nuclear Tests Completed". Indian Government. Ministry of External Affairs. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
  26. ^ BBC Report (13 May 1998). "Asia's nuclear challenge: Third World joins the nuclear club". BBC India 1998. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
  27. ^ "Prime Minister's announcement of India's three underground nuclear tests". Fas.org. Archived from the original on 14 March 2002. Retrieved 31 January 2013.
  28. ^ "Prime Minister's press briefing video". YouTube.
  29. ^ a b c Lyon, David (31 May 1998). "India detonates two more bombs". BBC India, 1998 (Follow up). Retrieved 17 January 2013.
  30. ^ a b c d BBC Reports (1 June 1998). "India—will sanctions bite?". BBC Economic review. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
  31. ^ Haidar, Suhasini (31 August 2014). "East meets Far East". The Hindu.
  32. ^ "U.S. lifts final sanctions on Pakistan". CNN. 29 October 2001. Archived from the original on 3 April 2012.
  33. ^
    JSTOR 4406922
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  34. ^ "China is 'Seriously Concerned' But Restrained in Its Criticism". New York Times, 13 May 1998. 13 May 1998.
  35. ^ a b c Resources on India and Pakistan (1999). "China's Reaction to India's Nuclear Tests". CNS Center for Nonproliferation Studies Monterey Institute of International Studies. Archived from the original on 3 January 2013. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
  36. ^ Active Correspondents (24 November 1998). "India-China Claim 'active approach". The Hindu, 24/xi-1998.
  37. ^ Special Report (13 May 1998). "Pakistan condemns India's nuclear tests". BBC Pakistan. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
  38. ^
    ISBN 978-1-62157-137-7
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  39. ^ See Chagai-I
  40. ^ "cns.miis.edu". Archived from the original on 18 November 2001. Retrieved 8 January 2009.
  41. ^ "Pakistan's tests". Retrieved 18 January 2013.
  42. The Herald
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  43. ^ Weiner, T. (13 May 1998). "Nuclear anxiety: The Blunders; U.S. Blundered On Intelligence, Officials Admit". The New York Times.
  44. ^ BBC Release (13 May 1998). "US imposes sanctions on India". BBC America. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
  45. ^ "U.S. imposes sanctions on India". CNN.
  46. ^ Chandrasekharan, S. "CTBT : where does India stand?". southasiaanalysis.org/. South Asia analysis. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  47. ^ a b "Clarifying India's Nascent Nuclear Doctrine". armscontrol.org/. arms control interview. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  48. ^
    ISBN 978-0-7656-1419-3
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  49. ^ a b Press Information Bureau (11 May 2008). "National technology day celebrated". Department of Science and Technology. Archived from the original on 15 December 2010. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
  50. ^ Ghosh, Samrudhi (14 August 2017). "John Abraham unveils Parmanu poster: All you need to know about the story of Pokhran". India Today. Retrieved 11 November 2017.
  51. ^ SatyaShodak (18 December 2017), War and Peace—Anand Patwardhan, retrieved 1 June 2019[dead YouTube link]

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