Poland in antiquity

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Poland in antiquity was characterized by peoples from various

400–200 BC is also considered the early pre-Roman period,^[2] and 200–0 BC the younger pre-Roman period (A). These eras were followed by the period of Roman influence:

• Early stage: 0–150 AD
  • 0–80 B₁
  • 80–150 B₂
• Late stage: 150–375 AD
  • 150–250 C₁
  • 250–300 C₂
  • 300–375 C₃

The years 375–500 AD constituted the (pre-Slavic) Migration Period (D and E).^[3]

Beginning in the early 4th century BC, Celts established a number of settlement centers. Most of these were in what is now southern Poland, which was at the outer edge of their expansion. Through their highly developed

Expanding and moving out of their homeland in Scandinavia and Northern Germany, Germanic peoples lived in Poland for several centuries, during which period many of their tribes also migrated outward to the south and east (see Wielbark culture). With the expansion of the Roman Empire, the Germanic tribes came under Roman cultural influence. Some written remarks by Roman authors that are relevant to the developments on Polish lands have been preserved; they give additional insight when compared with the archeological record. In the end, as the Roman Empire was nearing its collapse and the nomadic peoples invading from the east destroyed, damaged, or destabilized the various extant Germanic cultures and societies, the Germanic tribes left Central and Eastern Europe for the safer and wealthier western and southern parts of the European continent.^[5]

The northeast corner of today's Poland was and remained populated by Baltic tribes. They were at the outer limits of the significant cultural influence of the Roman Empire.^[6]

Celtic peoples

Archeological cultures and groups

Celts first arrived in Poland from Bohemia and Moravia around or after 400 BC, just a few decades after their La Tène culture emerged. They formed several enclaves mostly in the south of the country, within the Pomeranian or Lusatian populations or in areas abandoned by those peoples. The cultures or groups that were Celtic or had a Celtic element (mixed Celtic and autochthonous) lasted at their furthest extent to 170 AD (Púchov culture). After the Celts appeared and during their tenure (they were always a small minority), the bulk of the population had begun acquiring the traits of archaeological cultures with a dominant Germanic component. In Europe, the expansion of Rome and the pressures exerted by Germanic peoples checked and reversed the Celtic expansion.^[7]

Initially, two groups established themselves on fertile grounds in

Among the most significant Celtic finds in Lesser Poland are the extensive and wealthy settlement in Podłęże and its associated cemetery in Zakrzowiec, both in Wieliczka County; and a multi-period settlement complex in Aleksandrowice, Kraków County. The Podłęże site was occupied from the mid-3rd century BC onward and yielded many metal objects, coins and blank coin molds, and a large collection of glass bracelets. The Celtic graves at Zakrzowiec are dugout rectangular enclosures several meters long that contain ashes and grave offerings such as pottery and personal ornaments. Graves of the same type but of a later time, 1st–2nd century CE, are also found around Kraków, demonstrating the continuation of Celtic traditions even after the arrival of Germanic tribes in the area. The Celtic burial site investigated in Aleksandrowice contains a rich 2nd-century-BC assemblage of funerary gifts, including iron weapons. The unique elaborate designs of these items, including a scabbard with a recurring dragon motif, have been found only in the areas of Celtic settlement in Slovenia and western Croatia.^[15]

Spiritual life and cult sites

Within the realm of Celtic

Early Germanic[c] peoples

La Tène and Jastorf cultures and their roles

Germanic cultures in Poland developed gradually and diversely, beginning with the extant Lusatian and Pomeranian peoples, influenced and augmented first by La Tène Celts, and then by Jastorf tribes, who settled northwestern Poland beginning in the 4th century BC and later migrated southeast through and past the main stretch of Polish lands (mid-3rd century BC and after).^[a] The now-disappearing Celts had greatly reshaped central Europe and left a lasting legacy. Their advanced culture catalyzed economic and other progress within the contemporary as well as future populations, which had often had little or no Celtic component. The La Tène archeological period ended as the Common Era began. The origins of the Germanic people's powerful ascent, leading them to displace the Celts, are not easy to discern. For example, we do not know to what degree Pomeranian culture gave way to Przeworsk culture by internal evolution, external population influx, or just permeation by the new regional cultural trends.^[17][18][19]

The early Germanic Jastorf cultural sphere was in the beginning an impoverished continuation of the North German

It is not clear whether, to what degree, or for what duration some of these traveling Jastorf people settled in Poland.^[22] However, their migration, together with the accelerated La Tène influence, catalyzed the emergence of the Oksywie and Przeworsk cultures. Both new cultures were under strong Jastorf influence. The increasingly common presence within the Przeworsk culture area of objects made by Jastorf people reflects the penetration of Jastorf culture into their population. Both the Oksywie and Przeworsk cultures fully used iron processing technologies; unlike their predecessor cultures, they show no regional differentiation.^[21]

Oksywie culture (250 BC–30 AD) was named after a village (now within the city of Gdynia) where a burial site was found. It originally occupied the Vistula delta region and then the rest of eastern Pomerania, expanded west up to the Jastorf Oder group area, and in the 1st century BE also included part of what had been that group's territory. Like other cultures of this period, it had basic La Tène cultural characteristics, plus those typical of the Baltic cultures. Oksywie culture ceramics and burial customs indicate strong ties with Przeworsk culture. Men's ashes were placed in well-made black urns with a fine finish and a decorative band. Unlike men's graves in Jastorf culture, theirs were furnished with utensils and weapons, including the typical one-edged sword, and were often covered with or marked by stones. Women's ashes were buried in hollows with feminine personal items. A clay vessel with relief animal images found in Gołębiowo Wielkie in Gdańsk County (2nd half of 1st century BC) is among the finest in all of the Germanic cultural zone.^[21]

Much circumstantial evidence points to the participation of Germanic people from Polish lands in the events of the first half of the 1st century BC, which culminated in Gaul in 58 BC, as related in Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico. At the time the Suebi tribal confederation led by Ariovistus arrived in Gaul, a rapid decrease of settlement density can be observed in the areas of the upper and middle Oder River basin. In fact, the Gubin group of Jastorf culture then disappeared entirely, which may indicate that the group identified with one of the Suebi tribes. Also vacated were the western areas of Przeworsk culture (Lower Silesia, Lubusz Land and western Greater Poland), the probable original territory of the tribes accompanying the Suebi. Burial sites and artifacts characteristic of Przeworsk culture have been found in Saxony, Thuringia, and Hesse, along the route of the Suebi offensive. The abovementioned regions of western Poland were not repopulated and economically redeveloped until the 2nd century CE.^[24]

As a result of the Roman efforts to subjugate all of

From the beginning of the Common Era until 140 CE, two local groups existed in northwest Poland. The Gustow group (named after Gustow on Rügen) lived in the area settled in the past by the Oder group. To the south, by the middle section of the Oder River (the area previously inhabited by the Gubin group), lived the Lubusz group. These two groups were intermediary between the Elbe cultural circle to the west and the Przeworsk and Wielbark cultures to the east (Wielbark replaced Oksywie culture after 30 CE).^[24]

Przeworsk culture settlements and burial sites

The Przeworsk people of the earlier Roman period lived in small, unprotected villages. Each village had a few dozen residents at most, living in several houses, each of which covered an area of 8–22 m² and was usually set partly below ground level (semi-sunken). Because Przeworsk people had wells, settlements did not need to be near bodies of water. Thirteen 2nd-century-CE wells of various construction with timber-lined walls have been found at a settlement in Stanisławice, Bochnia County.^[15][26] Fields were used for crop cultivation for a while and then as pastures, as animal manure helped refertilize the depleted soil. Once iron plowshares were introduced, Przeworsk fields alternated between tillage and grazing.

Several or more settlements made up a micro-region within which the residents cooperated economically and buried their dead in a common cemetery. Each micro-region was separated from other micro-regions by forests and barren land. A number of such micro-regions possibly made up a tribe, with tribes separated by empty space, which Tacitus called zones "of mutual fear." However, tribes would at times form larger confederations, such as temporary alliances for waging wars or even early forms of states, especially if they were culturally closely related.^[24]

A Przeworsk culture turn-of-the-millennium industrial complex for the extraction of salt from salt springs was discovered in Chabsko near Mogilno.^[27]

Examinations of Przeworsk burial grounds, of which even the largest was used continuously over periods of up to several centuries, have turned up no more than several hundred graves, showing that overall population density was low.^[28][b] The dead were cremated and the ashes sometimes placed into urns with central engraved bulges. In the 1st century CE, this design was replaced with a horizontal ridge around the circumference of the urn, which produced a sharp profile.

In Siemiechów, a grave of a warrior who must have taken part in the Ariovistus expedition (70–50 BC) was found; it contains Celtic weapons, a helmet manufactured in the Alpine region that was used as the warrior's burial urn, and local ceramics. Burial gifts were often, for unknown reasons, bent or broken and then burned with the body. The burials range from "poor" to "rich," the latter supplied with costly Celtic and then Roman imports, reflecting the considerable social stratification that had developed by then.^[24]

Wielbark culture and burials

The Kowalewko cemetery in Greater Poland is one of the largest Wielbark burial sites in Poland and is distinguished by a great number of beautiful relics, made locally or imported from the Empire. The total number of burials is estimated to exceed 500, most of which have been excavated. Sixty percent of bodies were not cremated but were typically placed in wooden coffins made of boards or planks. The burial ground was in use from the mid-1st century CE to about 220, meaning that approximately 80 local residents of each generation were inhumed there. Remnants of settlements in the region have also been investigated.^[29] At Rogowo near Chełmno, a Wielbark settlement, an industrial production site and a 2nd-to-3rd-century bi-ritual cemetery with very richly furnished graves have been discovered.^[30] In the area of Ulkowy, Gdańsk County, a settlement consisting of sunken floors and post-construction dwellings has been found, as well as a burial ground in use from the mid-1st century to the second half of the 3rd century. Only part of the cemetery was excavated on the occasion of a motorway construction, but it yielded 110 inhumations (11 in hollowed-out log coffins) and 15 cremations (eight of them in urns) with a rich collection of decorative objects, mostly from the graves of women. Those include fancy jewelry and accessories made of gold, silver, bronze, amber, glass, and enamel. Ceramics, utility items, and tools, including weaving equipment, were recovered from the settlement site. Other significant Wielbark settlements in the area were encountered in Swarożyn and Stanisławie, both in Tczew County.^[24][31][32]

Many Wielbark graves were flat, but

The evolution of the power structure within the Germanic societies in Poland and elsewhere can be traced to some degree by examining the "princely" graves - burials of chiefs, and even hereditary princes, as the consolidation of power progressed. Those appear from the beginning of the Common Era and are located away from ordinary cemeteries, singly or in small groups. The bodies were inhumed in wooden coffins and covered with kurgans, or interred in wooden or stone chambers. Luxurious Roman-made gifts and fancy barbarian emulations (such as silver and gold clasps with springs, created with an unsurpassed attention to detail, dated 3rd century CE from Wrocław Zakrzów), but not weapons, were placed in the graves. The 1st and 2nd century burials of this type, occurring all the way from Jutland to Lesser Poland, are referred to as princely graves Lubieszewo type, after Lubieszewo, Gryfice County in western Pomerania, where six such burials were found. Two types of 3rd- and 4th-century princely graves are distinguished: The Zakrzów type, named after the location of three very rich stone chamber burials found in Wrocław Zakrzów occur in southern Poland, while in the northern and central parts of the country the Rostołty (Białystok County) type kurgans are rather common. At some sites, believed to be dynastic necropolises, the princes were buried in generation long time increments. During the late Roman period the princely burials are fewer in number, but they get increasingly more elaborate.^[36]

Ceramics and metallurgy

The pottery as well as iron mining and processing industries kept developing in Poland throughout the Roman periods, until terminated in the 5th century or so by the

Graves of warrior-smiths buried with weapons and sets of tools were found, which suggests that they belonged to the societal upper ranks and were held in high esteem.[2]

Weapons and tools

A set of iron carpenter's tools from the 3rd-4th century, including a compass for marking circles, was found in Przywóz, Wieluń County, where there was a Przeworsk culture settlement and a 2nd/3rd century dynastic burial complex.^[39] The graves of Przeworsk men typically include substantial collections of arms, so that their warrior's battle equipment and its evolution are well known. Less wealthy warriors fought typically on foot, with spears (for close range combat) and javelins (for throwing), both with iron heads. The better off fighters used swords, first of the long Celtic kind, and then in the 1st and 2nd century CE of the short and broad, gladius Roman infantry type. Swords were kept in scabbards, some of which, depending on status, were very ornate. The long and narrow swords, better suited for horseback combat, became popular again in the 3rd century, but only the more wealthy warriors had horses, not to mention iron helmets or ring armor. Round wooden shields had iron umbos in the middle, usually with a thorn for piercing the enemy. There were no saddles, but the richest of horsemen used silver spurs and bronze bridles with chain reins. Numerous Przeworsk culture objects including spurs and a unique silver belt buckle were recovered at the Aleksandrowice, Kraków County settlement area; some relics there are dated possibly as late as the first half of the 6th century.^[15][26][36]

Migrations of Wielbark and Przeworsk cultures people

In the 2nd century CE the Proto-

The Przeworsk people were for the most part also moving (to a lesser extent) south and east, which by the 4th century caused a lessening of the population density in northern and central Poland with a simultaneous settlement concentration increases in Lesser Poland and

The territory of the powerful confederation of the Hun tribes included about 400 CE the lands of southern Poland, where burial and treasure sites have been investigated. A woman's grave in Jędrzychowice, Strzelin County contained fancy feminine ornaments and a nicely preserved bronze kettle, which gave a name ("Jędrzychowice") to one of the two basic Hun kettle types, while a burial of a young warrior-aristocrat including his horse and precious harness, attire and weaponry elements (gold sheet covered ritual bow and sword sheath) was found in Jakuszowice, Kazimierza Wielka County. Still further east, in Świlcza near Rzeszów a hidden Hun treasure was located; this last find dates from the mid-5th century, when the Hun empire was about to crumble.^[44]

Baltic peoples

Early Balts in light of ancient sources and linguistic research

The

Herodotus wrote of the Neuri tribe, who lived beyond the Scythians and to the north of whom the land was uninhabited as far as he knew.^[46]

Of the Baltic tribes may have written

According to linguistic sources, the Baltic tribes precursors appeared first inland, in the forest zone regions far from the sea, and only later settled the near Baltic Sea areas, extending from the northeastern part of the Vistula basin to the

Daugava River basin. This westbound expansion resulted in the establishment of the two main Baltic branches: The Western Balts, represented by the extinct Old Prussians and Yotvingians, and the Eastern Balts including the modern nations of Lithuanians and Latvians.^[45]

Western Balt culture

The

Bronze and Iron Age Poland article, within its time frame. The process of separation and differentiation of the eastern and western Baltic tribes deepened during the period of Roman influence, when the economy, culture, and customs of the Western Balts became increasingly influenced by the more highly developed Przeworsk and Wielbark cultures. From the beginning of the Common Era we can speak of the Western Balt culture, which included several distinct groups of the Western Baltic cultural circle and can definitely be connected with the Baltic peoples.^[29][50]

Beginning in the 1st century AD, the Western Balts experienced their "golden" period — times of economic expansion and increased affluence of their societies, all of which was based on the amber trade, resulting in active and long-term contacts with the lands of the Roman Empire. As late as the early 6th century AD, an Aesti mission arrived in Italy at the court of King Theodoric the Great of the Ostrogoths with gifts of amber. As elsewhere, with wealth came imported and locally manufactured luxury items, social stratification, and an emergence of the "princely" class, whose status was reflected in their burials.^[45]

Baltic settlements, economy, crafts, and burials

The Balts grew various

peas, but despite the advent of iron-reinforced plows and other new agricultural technologies, the regional environmental conditions set limits on the practicality and extent of land tillage. By contrast, the dense forest coverage facilitated gathering and was more amenable to the raising of livestock. The latter included all of the major species of farm animals, including in particular the small forest horse ('Equus caballus germanicus'). The horses constituted an important element of the Baltic tribes' culture: men of high socioeconomic status were often buried with their horses, and even with costly equestrian gear.^[45]

Baltic settlements were mainly small, family-based communities, often forming small clusters separated by uninhabited areas. However, some settlements were larger and remained in use over many generations. While they lacked artificial fortifications, they were often raised in natural settings that were easily defended. One rather large dwelling place, which was in use from the 2nd to the 4th century, was discovered and investigated in Osowo, Gołdap County (near Suwałki). The living quarters were pillar-supported houses, while the farming infrastructure included 80 grain storage caves.

Small fortified refuges were built to a limited extent beginning at the end of the 4th century, but Western Balts did not build larger-scale fortified settlements until the Middle Ages.^[45]

The dominant funereal custom was cremation, with ashes placed in urns that were either ceramic or made from organic materials such as

textiles or leather. In the large cemeteries built along the seashore and covered by stone pavement, graves were flat. However, there were also single graves accompanied by stone structures/kurgans, as in the skeletal burials from the 1st and 2nd centuries AD that have been found in Sambia and the later ones (3rd–4th centuries) in Sudovia. From about 400 AD onward, cremation became the only means of corpse disposition, and the more familiar type of kurgan emerged, with each grave holding the remains of several persons.^[45]

Samples of mature ancient-Baltic craftsmanship (2nd–4th century) have been found in places such as Żywa Woda and Szwajcaria, both in Suwałki County; and in Augustów County. The princely graves, as is typical, also contain many imports from southern and western Europe. Baltic fine bronze ornamental items, such as thin, open-worked plates for necklace clasps, were typically coated with colored, often red enamel. Foreign influence can also be seen in the designs of clay urns, such as the 3rd- or 4th-century Greek kernos-type vessel with additional miniature urns attached, or the 5th-century "window" container with a square opening from Olsztyn County, similar to the urns found in Denmark and northwestern Germany.^[45]

Olsztyn group

The last-mentioned specimen comes from the Olsztyn group burial ground in Tumiany. The Olsztyn group represents the late phase of the Western Baltic cultural circle, originating in the second half of the 5th century and reaching its height in the 6th and 7th centuries. It was located in Masuria, partially in areas vacated by the Wielbark culture people. This group is believed to have been established by branches of the Galindian tribe, including a part that migrated to southern Europe and then returned to the Baltic area. Its cemeteries contain horse burials and many plate clasps, buckles, connectors, and other objects made of bronze, silver, and gold, studded with semi-precious stones and decorated with engravings. These sophisticated artifacts demonstrate the Olsztyn group people's extensive interregional and far-reaching trade and other relationships and contacts with the peoples of Scandinavia and western, southern, and southeastern Europe.^[51]

Migrations and their effects on Baltic people

In the 5th century, due to

Old Prussian tribes, such as the previously mentioned Galindians and Yotvingians, encompassed today's northeast Poland and the adjacent territories further north. Galindia (today's western Masuria), whose new inhabitants included the Olsztyn group, became in the 6th and 7th centuries the most affluent of the lands settled by Balts, with highly developed local craftsmanship supplementing the wealth of items brought from distant countries.^[45]

This westbound expansion was accompanied by retreat at the southeastern bounds of the Baltic range caused by the advance of the Slavs,

Latvians are the sole surviving Baltic peoples.^[45][54]

See also

• Prehistory of Poland (until 966)
• Stone Age Poland
• Bronze and Iron Age Poland
• Poland in the Early Middle Ages

Notes

a.^{^} The Lusatian and Pomeranian people, or their linguistic predecessors, may have belonged to the hypothetical Old European languages group (pre-Indo-European), the probable source of the names of many European rivers. Their descendants possibly constituted the bulk of the Przeworsk culture population in its early stages. Kaczanowski, Kozłowski, p. 348

b.^{^} This would appear to contradict the "countless multitude" of Lugii warriors, as seen by Tacitus.

c.^{^} "Germanic" identification is used here as a broad approximation. The article deals with archeological cultures whose ethnic and linguistic identifications are often unknown or uncertain.

References

Citations

1. ISBN 83-7023-954-4
   , p. 86–121
2. ^
   ISBN 87-87483-18-1
3. ISBN 83-08-02855-1
   .
4. ^ U źródeł Polski, p. 86–93
5. ^ U źródeł Polski, p. 94–115
6. ^ U źródeł Polski, p. 116–119
7. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} U źródeł Polski, p. 86–91, Bogusław Gediga
8. ^ The Archaeology of the Route of A-4 Motorway in Silesia by Bogusław Gediga, Archeologia Żywa (Living Archeology), special English issue 2005
9. ^ Kalendarium dziejów Polski (Chronology of Polish History), ed. Andrzej Chwalba, p. 13, Jacek Poleski
10. ^ U źródeł Polski, p. 101, Tadeusz Makiewicz
11. ISBN 83-85719-34-2
    , p. 280, 282–283
12. ^ Dulęba, Przemysław (2019-10-17). "Czy w Warkoczu odkryto najstarsze celtyckie piece hutnicze?". Archeologia Żywa (in Polish). Retrieved 2020-01-08.
13. ^ Celtowie spod Opola, Gazeta Wyborcza Nov. 16, 2007, Izabela Żbikowska
14. ^ Skarb Celtów pod Kietrzem!, Nowa Trybuna Opolska Nov. 16, 2007, Sławomir Draguła
15. ^ ^{a b c} Archaeological Motorway by Ryszard Naglik, Archeologia Żywa (Living Archeology), special English issue 2005
16. ^ U źródeł Polski, p. 92–93, Marek Derwich
17. ^ U źródeł Polski, map on p.88
18. ^ U źródeł Polski, p. 94–96, Tadeusz Makiewicz
19. ^ Kaczanowski, Kozłowski, map on p. 210 and p. 215–216
20. ^ Kaczanowski, Kozłowski, p. 224
21. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} U źródeł Polski, p. 94–97, Tadeusz Makiewicz
22. ^ Kaczanowski, Kozłowski, p. 216
23. ^ Kaczanowski, Kozłowski, p. 327–330
24. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j} U źródeł Polski, p. 100–105, Tadeusz Makiewicz
25. ^ U źródeł Polski, p. 98–99 and 101, Tadeusz Makiewicz
26. ^ ^{a b} Archeological Museum in Kraków web site
27. ^ The Archaeology of the Transit Gas Pipeline by Kazimierz Adamczyk and Marek Gierlach, Archeologia Żywa (Living Archeology) special English issue 2005
28. ^ U źródeł Polski, p. 101–103, Tadeusz Makiewicz
29. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} The Goths in Greater Poland and the Polish version Goci w Wielkopolsce by Tadeusz Makiewicz, Poznań Archaeological Museum web site
30. ^ Archaeological Rescue Excavations by Wojciech Chudziak, Archeologia Żywa (Living Archeology), special English issue 2005
31. ^ Archaeological Rescue Excavations by Mirosław Fudziński and Henryk Paner, Archeologia Żywa (Living Archeology), special English issue 2005
32. ^ Museum of Archeology in Gdańsk web site
33. ^ U źródeł Polski, maps on p. 100 and 108
34. ^ Polish Wikipedia article on this culture
35. ^ Kaczanowski, Kozłowski, p. 256
36. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i} U źródeł Polski, p. 106–113 and 120, Tadeusz Makiewicz
37. ^ U źródeł Polski, p. 114–115, Borys Paszkiewicz
38. ^ Kalendarium dziejów Polski (Chronology of Polish History), ed. Andrzej Chwalba, p. 16, Jacek Poleski
39. ^ Polish Wikipedia article on Przywóz
40. ^ Kaczanowski, Kozłowski, map on p. 302
41. ^ U źródeł Polski, p. 222, Wojciech Mrozowicz, Adam Żurek
42. ^ Problem kontynuacji kulturowej ... by Tadeusz Makiewicz, from Praojczyzna Słowian, Institute of Anthropology in Poznań
43. ^ Kaczanowski, Kozłowski, p. 327–331
44. ^ U źródeł Polski, p. 120–121, Tadeusz Makiewicz
45. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j} U źródeł Polski, p. 116–119, Danuta Jaskanis
46. ^ Marija Gimbutas. "The Bronze and the Early Iron Age of the Eastern Balts". Archived from the original on 2008-11-08.
47. ^ U źródeł Polski, p. 102, Tadeusz Makiewicz
48. ^ Kaczanowski, Kozłowski, p. 259, 350
49. ^ Transl. by Charles Christopher Mierow, Princeton University Press 1908, from the University of Calgary web site
50. ^ Kaczanowski, Kozłowski, p. 299–300
51. ^ Kaczanowski, Kozłowski, p. 331–333
52. ^ U źródeł Polski, p. 119, Danuta Jaskanis
53. ^ U źródeł Polski, p. 116, Danuta Jaskanis
54. ^ U źródeł Polski, Synchronization of archeological cultures, p. 216–217 by Adam Żurek and chronology tables p. 222–225 by Wojciech Mrozowicz and Adam Żurek used throughout the article

Bibliography

Main article: Bibliography of the history of Poland

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• ISBN 83-85719-34-2
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• Kleineberg, A.; Marx Ch.; Knobloch, E.; Lelgemann D.: Germania und die Insel Thule. Die Entschlüsselung von Ptolemaios' "Atlas der Oikumene". WBG 2010.
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• Various authors, ed.
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