Poles in Lithuania
This article may be Roman Catholic[2] | |
Related ethnic groups | |
---|---|
Poles, Lithuanians, Belarusians |
The Poles in Lithuania (
During the
Currently, the Polish population is grouped in the Vilnius region, primarily the
Statistics
According to the Lithuanian census of 2021, the Polish minority in Lithuania numbered 183,421 persons or 6.5% of the population of Lithuania. It is the largest
Year | Pop. | ±% |
---|---|---|
1825[11] | 100,000[a] | — |
1897[12] | 260,000 | +160.0% |
1942[13] | 356,000 | +36.9% |
1944[14] | 380,000 | +6.7% |
1947[14] | 208,000 | −45.3% |
1959[15] | 230,000 | +10.6% |
1979 | 247,000 | +7.4% |
1989 | 258,000 | +4.5% |
2001 | 235,000 | −8.9% |
2011[16] | 200,000 | −14.9% |
2021[1] | 183,000 | −8.5% |
Lithuanian municipalities with a Polish minority exceeding 15% of the total population (according to the 2021 census) are listed in the table below:
Municipality name | Area | Total population | Number of Poles | Percentage |
---|---|---|---|---|
Vilnius city
|
401 km2 | 556,490 | 85,438 | 15.4% |
Vilnius district
|
2,129 km2 | 96,295 | 45,020 | 46.8% |
Šalčininkai district
|
1,491 km2 | 30,052 | 22,934 | 76.3% |
Trakai district
|
1,208 km2 | 32,042 | 8,823 | 27.5% |
Švenčionys district
|
1,692 km2 | 22,966 | 5,585 | 24.3% |
Top 10 cities by number of Poles:[18]
- Vilnius: 85,438
- Šalčininkai: 4,930
- Lentvaris: 2,859
- Nemenčinė: 2,858
- Eišiškės: 2,844
- Pabradė: 2,681
- Grigiškės: 2,518
- Visaginas: 2,084
- Trakai: 938
- Švenčionys: 860
Languages
The adoption of Polish cultural features by the nobles, townspeople, and clergy in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, combined with an influx of migrants from Poland, created a Lithuanian variant of the Polish language.[19] The local variety of Polish called Polszczyzna Litewska became the native tongue of the Lithuanian nobility in the 18th century.[20]
According to Polish professor Jan Otrębski's article published in 1931, the Polish dialect in the Vilnius Region and in the northeastern areas in general are very interesting variant of Polishness as this dialect developed in a foreign territory which was mostly inhabited by the Lithuanians who were Belarusized (mostly) or Polonized, and to prove this Otrębski provided examples of Lithuanianisms in the Tutejszy language.[21][22] In 2015, Polish linguist Mirosław Jankowiak attested that many of the Vilnius Region's inhabitants who declare Polish nationality speak a Belarusian dialect which they call mowa prosta ('simple speech').[23]
Out of the 234,989 Poles in Lithuania, 187,918 (80.0%) consider Polish to be their
Education
Absolute numbers with Polish language education at Lithuanian rural schools (1980)[28]
| |||
---|---|---|---|
District municipality | Lithuanian | Russian | Polish |
Vilnius / Wilno
|
1,250 | 4,150 | 6,400 |
Šalčininkai / Soleczniki
|
500 | 2,050 | 3,200 |
Trakai / Troki
|
2,900 | 50 | 950 |
Širvintos / Szyrwinty
|
2,400 | 100 | 100 |
Švenčionys / Święciany
|
1,350 | 600 | 100 |
Varėna / Orany
|
6,000 | 0 | 50 |
Absolute number with Polish language education at Lithuanian urban schools was 5,600 |
As of 1980, about 20% of Polish Lithuanian students chose Polish as the language of instruction at school.[28] In the same year, about 60–70% of rural Polish communities chose Polish. However, even in towns with a predominantly Polish population, the share of Polish-language education was less than the percentage of Poles. Even though, historically, Poles tended to strongly oppose Russification, one of the most important reasons to choose Russian language education was the absence of a Polish-language college and university learning in the USSR, and during Soviet times Polish minority students in Lithuania were not allowed to get college/university education across the border in Poland. Only in 2007, the first small branch of the Polish University of Białystok opened in Vilnius. In 1980 there were 16,400 school students instructed in Polish. Their number declined to 11,400 in 1990. In independent Lithuania between 1990 and 2001, the number of Polish mother tongue children attending schools with Polish as the language of instruction doubled to over 22,300, then gradually decreased to 18,392 in 2005.[29] In September 2003, there were 75 Polish-language general education schools and 52 which provided education in Polish in a combination of languages (for example Lithuanian-Polish, Lithuanian-Russian-Polish). These numbers fell to 49 and 41 in 2011, reflecting a general decline in the number of schools in Lithuania.[30] Polish government was concerned in 2015 about the education in Polish.[31]
History until 1990
Grand Duchy of Lithuania (before 1795)
First Polish people in Lithuania were mainly
The influx of Poles to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania significantly increased after the Union of Lublin.[47] This population movement created a fertile ground for socio-cultural Polonization of Lithuanian territories. While Poles and foreigners were generally prohibited from holding public offices in the Grand Duchy, Polish people gradually gained this right through the acquisition of Lithuanian land.[48] Poor nobles from the Crown rented land from local magnates.[49] The number of Poles grew also in the towns, among others in Vilnius, Kaunas, and Grodno.[50] Vilnius became the most important center of the Polish intelligentsia in the Grand Duchy,[51] with Poles predominating in the city in the middle of the 17th century.[52]
Already at the beginning of the 16th century Polish became the first language of the Lithuanian magnates. In the following century it was adopted by the Lithuanian nobility in general. Even the nobility of Samogitia used the Polish language already in the 17th century.[53] The Polish language also penetrated other social strata: the clergy, the townspeople, and even the peasants.[54] During the Commonwealth's period, a Polish-dominated territory started to be slowly formed in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania,[34] such as Liauda, northeast of Kaunas (since the early 15th century). The Polish historian Władysław Wielhorski estimated that by the end of the 18th century, Polish and Polonized people constituted 25% of the Grand Duchy's inhabitants.[34]
Lithuania under Russian rule (1795–1918)
Until the 1830s, Polish was the administrative language in the so called Western Krai, which included the territories of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania that were annexed by the Russian Empire.[55] During the 19th century, Poles were the largest Christian population in Vilnius. They also predominated in the municipal government of the city in the earlier half of the 19th century.[56] The Polish-language university was re-established in Vilnius in 1803 and closed in 1832.[57] After the 1863 uprising, public use of the Polish language and teaching it to peasants, as well as possession of Polish books by the latter became illegal.[58][59] Notwithstanding their varied ethnic roots, the members of szlachta generally opted for Polish self-identification in the course of the 19th century.[60]
In the 19th century Polish culture was spreading among the lower classes of Lithuania,
Interwar period and Second World War (1918–1944)
In interwar Lithuania, people declaring Polish ethnicity were officially described as Polonized Lithuanians who needed to be re-
1925/1926 | 1926/1927 | 1927/1928 | 1928/1929 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Number of Polish elementary schools | 7 | 75 | 20 | 14 |
Number of employed Polish teachers | 10 | 90 | 22 | 17 |
Number of pupils | 365 | 4 089 | 554 | 450 |
Many Poles in Lithuania were signed in as Lithuanians in their passports, and as a result, they also were forced to attend Lithuanian schools. Polish education was organized by the "Pochodnia". After the establishment of Valdemaras regime in 1926, 58[74] Polish schools were closed, many Poles were incarcerated, and Polish newspapers were placed under strict censorship.[75] Poles also had difficult access to higher education.[76] Over time, the Polish language was also removed from the Church and seminaries. The most tragic episode in the history of Poles in interwar Lithuania was an anti-Polish demonstration organized by the Lithuanian Riflemen's Union on May 23, 1930 in Kaunas, which turned into a riot.[77]
A large portion of the Vilnius area was part of the Second Polish Republic during the interwar period, particularly the area of the Republic of Central Lithuania, which had a significant Polish speaking population.[78]
Soviet period (1944–1990)
Raion | % |
---|---|
City of Vilnius | 20.00% |
Vilnius | 81.44% |
Šalčininkai | 83.87% |
Nemenčinė | 73.21% |
Eišiškės | 67.40% |
Trakai | 48.17% |
Švenčionys | 23.86% |
Vievis | 22.87% |
During the
In the 1950s the remaining Polish minority was a target of several attempted campaigns of Lithuanization by the Communist Party of Lithuania, which tried to stop any teaching in Polish; those attempts, however, were stopped by Moscow.[86] The Soviet census of 1959 showed 230,100 Poles concentrated in the Vilnius region (8.5% of the Lithuanian SSR's population).[87] The Polish minority increased in size, but more slowly than other ethnic groups in Lithuania; the last Soviet census of 1989 showed 258,000 Poles (7.0% of the Lithuanian SSR's population).[87] The Polish minority, subject in the past to massive, often voluntary[88] Russification and Sovietization, and recently to voluntary processes of Lithuanization, shows many and increasing signs of assimilation with Lithuanians.[87]
In independent Lithuania
1990–2000
When Lithuania declared its independence from the Soviet Union in 1990 large part of the Polish minority, still remembering the 1950s attempts to ban Polish,
According to the historian Alfred E. Senn, the Polish minority was divided into three main groups: Vilnius' inhabitants supported Lithuanian independence, the residents of Vilnius' southeastern districts and Šalčininkai were pro-Soviet, while the third group scattered throughout the country did not have a clear position.[91] According to surveys from the spring of 1990, 47% of Poles in Lithuania supported the pro-Soviet Communist party (in contrast to 8% support among ethnic Lithuanians), while 35% supported Lithuanian independence.[86]
In November 1988,
In April 1989, another more moderate organization of Lithuanian Poles, the
A new Citizenship Law was enacted in December 1991, that granted citizenship to every person that lived in eastern Lithuania before 1940, if they didn't have citizenship of another country, thus excluding some persons that emigrated to Lithuania after the war.[97]
Such a situation caused tension in Polish–Lithuanian relations.[96] Direct rule was lifted and local elections were organised in December 1992.[98] The ZPL also strengthened its attitude, demanding that the Polish minority be granted a number of rights, such as the establishment of a Polish university, increasing the rights of the Polish language, increasing subsidies from the central budget, and others.[99] ZPL took part in the 1992 parliamentary elections winning 2.07% of the votes and four seats in Seimas.
In 1994, Lithuanian parliament limited participation in local elections to political parties, accordingly ZPL established Electoral Action for Lithuanian Poles (Polish: Akcja Wyborcza Polaków na Litwie, AWPL). In January 1995 a new Language Law was enacted which required representatives of local institutions to know Lithuanian language, also all secondary schools were required to teach Lithuanian.
Polish–Lithuanian relations eased only in 1994, when both countries signed a treaty of good neighborhood.[100] The treaty protected rights of Polish minority in Lithuania and Lithuanian minority in Poland.[101] It also defined nationality as a matter of individual choice, which was contrary to the definition popular among Lithuanian nationalists, and even to the definition given in Lithuania's National Minorities Right Law of 1989, which defined nationality as something inherited. The Treaty defined that to the Polish ethinic minority belongs persons who have Lithuanian citizenship, are of Polish origin or consider themselves to belong to the Polish nationality, culture and traditions as well as viewing the Polish language as their native language.[102]
The situation of the Polish minority assumed international significance again in 1995 after the publication of a Council of Europe report prepared by a commission headed by György Frunda (the so-called "Frunda Report"), which criticized Lithuanian policy toward the Polish minority, particularly the lack of recognition of the Polish university.[103] However, this did not significantly affect Lithuanian politics. In 1996, the special provisions that made an entry of ethno-political parties parliament easier were removed, and from then on they had to meet the usual electoral threshold. The restoration of property lost during the communist period was also a burning issue, which was implemented very slowly in the lands inhabited by Poles. Poles protested against the expansion of Vilnius' borders.[104]
After 2000
Tensions arose regarding Polish education and the spelling of names. The United States Department of State stated, in a report issued in 2001, that the Polish minority had issued complaints concerning its status in Lithuania, and that members of the Polish Parliament criticized the government of Lithuania over alleged discrimination against the Polish minority.[105] In 2006 Polish Foreign Minister Stefan Meller asserted that Polish educational institutions in Lithuania are severely underfunded.[106] Similar concerns were voiced in 2007 by a Polish parliamentary commission.[107] According to a report issued by the European Union Fundamental Rights Agency in 2004, Poles in Lithuania were the second least-educated minority group in Lithuania.[108] The branch of the University of Białystok in Vilnius educates mostly members of the Polish minority.
A report by the Council of Europe, issued in 2007, stated that on the whole, minorities were integrated quite well into the everyday life of Lithuania. The report expressed a concern with Lithuanian nationality law, which contains a right of return clause.[109] The citizenship law was under discussion during 2007; it was deemed unconstitutional on 13 November 2006.[110] A proposed constitutional amendment would allow the Polish minority in Lithuania to apply for Polish passports.[111]
Lithuanian constitutional law stipulated that everyone (not only Poles) who has Lithuanian citizenship and resides within the country has to write their name in the Lithuanian alphabet and according to the Lithuanian pronunciation; for example, the name Kleczkowski has to be spelled Klečkovski in official documents.[112][113][114][115] Poles who registered for Lithuanian citizenship after dissolution of the Soviet Union were forced to accept official documents with Lithuanian versions of their names.[116] On April 24, 2012 the European Parliament accepted for further consideration the petition (number 0358/2011) submitted by a Tomasz Snarski about the language rights of Polish minority, in particular about enforced Lithuanization of Polish surnames.[117][118]
Representatives of the Lithuanian government demanded removal of illegally placed Polish names of the streets in
In late May 2008, the
The Law on Ethnic Minorities lapsed in 2010.[128] As of 2023 Lithuania has not ratified the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[129]
Difficulties of the Polish minority
Discrimination
There are opinions[by whom?] in some Polish media that the Polish minority in Lithuania is facing discrimination. As mentioned above, Petition 0358/2011 on language rights of Poles living in Lithuania was filed with the European Parliament in 2011.[130] Polish Election Action in Lithuania claimed that the education legislation is discriminatory.[131] In 2011, former Polish President Lech Wałęsa criticized the government of Lithuania over its alleged discrimination against the Polish minority.[132]
Until 2022 Lithuania continued to enforce the Lithuanized[clarification needed] spelling of surnames of Poles in Lithuania, with some exceptions, in spite of the 1994 Polish–Lithuanian agreement,[133] Lithuanian legislative system and the Constitution, see section "Surnames" for details.
In 1989–2010, Lithuanian-Polish bilingual street signs were considered legal in Lithuania if placed in the areas with significant Polish populations. However, the Law on National Minorities, which guaranteed this, was discontinued. As a result, such signs are now prohibited and Lithuanian courts enforce their removal under the threat of fines.[134][135][136] The refusal of Lithuanian authorities to install or allow bilingual road signs (against the legislative base of Lithuania) in areas densely populated by Lithuanian Poles is at times described by the Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania and some Polish media as linguistic discrimination.[131][135]
Name/surname spelling
The official spelling of the all non-Lithuanian (hence Polish) name in a person's passport is governed by the 31 January 1991 Resolution of the Supreme Council of Lithuania No. I-1031 "Concerning name and surname spelling in the passport of the citizen of the Republic of Lithuania". There are the following options. The law says, in part:[137]
2. In the passport of a citizen of the Republic of Lithuania, the first name and surname of persons of non-Lithuanian origin shall be spelt in Lithuanian. On the citizen's request in writing, the name and surname can be spelt in the order established as follows:
a) according to pronunciation and without grammatisation (i.e. without Lithuanian endings) or b) according to pronunciation alongside grammatisation (i.e. adding Lithuanian endings).
3. The names and surnames of the persons, who have already possessed citizenship of other State, shall be written according to the passport of the State or an equivalent document available in the passport of the Republic of Lithuania on its issue.
This resolution was challenged in 1999 in the Constitutional Court upon a civil case of a person of Polish ethnicity who requested his name to be entered in the passport in Polish. The Constitutional Court upheld the 1991 resolution. At the same time, it was stressed out citizen's rights to spell their name whatever they like in areas "not linked with the sphere of use of the
In 2022, the Seimas passed a law allowing members of ethnic minorities to use the full Latin alphabet, including q, w and x, letters which are not considered part of the Lithuanian alphabet, but not characters with diacritics (such as ł and ä), in their legal name if they declare their status as an ethnic minority and prove that their ancestors used that name. In response, several ethnically Polish Lithuanian politicians changed their legal names to be closer to the Polish spelling, most notably Justice Minister Ewelina Dobrowolska (formerly spelled "Evelina Dobrovolska"), but requests for name changes from the general population were low.[139][140] From May 2022 when law came into action until the end of July 2023 only 337 people changed their names to include non-Lithuanian language symbols and only less than 5 of those declared to be of Polish descent.[141] By the end of August 2023 the number of people of Polish descent that changed their names to include non-Lithuanian symbols increased to 203 which was approximately 0.11% of all Poles in Lithuania.[142]
Organizations
The Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania – Christian Families Alliance (Lithuanian: Lietuvos lenkų rinkimų akcija, Polish: Akcja Wyborcza Polaków na Litwie) is an ethnic minority-based political party formed in 1994, able to exert significant political influence in the administrative districts where Poles form a majority or significant minority. This party has held seats in the Seimas (Parliament of Lithuania) for the past decade. In the 2020 Lithuanian parliamentary election it received just below 5% of the national vote. The party is more active in local politics and controls several municipal councils.[143] It cooperates with other minorities, mainly the Lithuanian Russian Union.
The
Prominent Poles
Prior to 1940
- Gabriel Narutowicz – president of Poland
- Józef Piłsudski – Polish statesman
- Wiktor Budzyński – politician
- Kanuty Rusiecki – painter
- Michał Pius Römer – lawyer
- Sofija Pšibiliauskienė – writer (Polish: Zofia Przybylewska)
- Marija Lastauskienė – writer (Polish: Maria Lastowska)
- Medard Czobot – politician (Lithuanian: Medardas Čobotas)
Since 1990
- Anicet Brodawski – a Polish autonomist leader during the late 1980s
- Darjuš Lavrinovič (Polish: Dariusz Ławrynowicz) – basketball player
- Kšyštof Lavrinovič (Polish: Krzysztof Ławrynowicz) – basketball player
- Artur Liudkovski (Polish: Artur Ludkowski) – former deputy mayor of Vilnius
- Jarosław Niewierowicz (Lithuanian: Jaroslav Neverovič) – former minister of energy, former vice-minister of foreign affairs
- Czesław Okińczyc (Lithuanian: Česlav Okinčic) – politician, journalist
- Artur Płokszto (Lithuanian: Artur Plokšto) – secretary of Ministry of National Defence
- Leokadia Poczykowska (Lithuanian: Leokadija Počikovska) – politician
- Ewelina Saszenko (Lithuanian: Evelina Sašenko) – singer
- Jan Sienkiewicz (Lithuanian: Jan Senkevič) –– politician, journalist
- Waldemar Tomaszewski (Lithuanian: Valdemar Tomaševski) – leader of Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania – Christian Families Alliance
- Stanisław Widtmann (Stanislavas Vidtmannas) – (as of 2011) vice-minister of culture in ethnic minorities affairs.[145][146]
- Jarosław Wołkonowski – dean of branch of University of Białystok in Vilnius
- Alina Orłowska – singer (Lithuanian: Alina Orlova)[citation needed]
- Michał Mackiewicz – politician (Lithuanian: Michal Mackevič)
- Irena Litwinowicz – politician (Lithuanian: Irena Litvinovič)
- Zbigniew Balcewicz – politician (Lithuanian: Zbignev Balcevič)
See also
- Lithuania–Poland relations
- Krajowcy
- Kresy
- Lithuanian minority in Poland
- Pochodnia, Polish cultural association in the interwar Lithuania
- Polish National Territorial Region
Notes
- ^ The number is for Vilna Governorate (Polish: Gubernia wileńska in the source), which in 1825 included most of modern Lithuania, except the lands now in Suwałki Governorate
- ^ Podlachia was part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania between the late 13th century and 1569.[37][38] The region was a sphere of old Polish-Mazovian settlement[39] and was governed according to the Polish law since 1514.[40] In the mid-16th century, the Poles became the main group among the Podlachian gentry, which led to demands from the local deputies for the complete union of their lands with Poland.[41][39] With time, Mazovians also started to predominate in Podlachian towns.[40] The total number of Poles in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania decreased with the loss of Podlachia and lands in Ukraine.[42]
References
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In a letter written to Vytautas Landsbergis in December of 1991, Polish President Lech Walesa described Lithuanian-Polish relations as "close to critical."
- ^ Antanas Valionis; Evaldas Ignatavičius; Izolda Bričkovskienė. "From Solidarity to Partnership: Lithuanian-Polish Relations 1988–1998" (PDF). Lithuanian Foreign Policy Review, 1998, issue 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 25, 2009. Retrieved 2008-03-29.
The interval between the restoration of diplomatic relations in September 1991 and the signing of the Treaty on Friendly Relations and Good Neighborly Cooperation on April 26, 1994 was probably the most difficult period for Lithuanian-Polish relations (there were even assertions that relations in this period were "in some ways even worse than before the war").
- ^ Stephen R. Burant and Voytek Zubek, Eastern Europe's Old Memories and New Realities: Resurrecting the Polish–Lithuanian Union, East European Politics and Societies 1993; 7; 370, online Archived 2020-05-24 at the Wayback Machine (BEHIND A PAYWALL)
- ^ Sanford 1999, p. 99.
- ^ Lane 2001, p. 209.
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- ^ Atlas of Lithuanian SSR, Moscow, 1981 (in Russian), p.129
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- ^ Data from Statistikos Departamentas Archived 2016-12-20 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 2009-08-09
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- ^ "Census 2021. Largest ethnic groups in Vilnius county (predefined tables)". osp.stat.gov.lt. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
- ^ "Rodiklių duomenų bazė - Oficialiosios statistikos portalas". Osp.stat.gov.lt. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
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In the 18th century the Lithuanian nobility accepted Polish as their native language, to be more exact, they adopted the "Lithuanian" variant of the Polish language, the so-called "polszczyzna litewska"
- ^ Nitsch, Kazimierz; Otrębski, Jan (1931). "Język Polski. 1931, nr 3 (maj/czerwiec)" (in Polish). Polska Akademia Umiejętności, Komisja Języka Polskiego: 80–85. Retrieved 3 November 2023.
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(help) - ^ Martinkėnas, Vincas (19 December 2016). "Vilniaus ir jo apylinkių čiabuviai". Alkas.lt (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 3 November 2023.
- ^ Jankowiak, Miroslaw (26 August 2015). ""Mowa prosta" jest dla mnie synonimem gwary białoruskiej" (in Polish).
- ^ Population by ethnicity and mother tongue Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine. Data from Statistikos Departamentas, 2001 Population and Housing Census.
- ISSN 2392-2435.
- ^ Jankowiak: Polacy na Wileńszczyźnie mówią gwarą białoruską (Mirosław Jankowiak (linguist, specialist in Polish and Belarusian): Poles in Vilnius region do speak Belarusian dialect)
- ISBN 9986-09-002-4
- ^ a b "Атлас Литовской ССР" 1981, Государственный плановый комитет Литовской ССР. Министерство высшего и среднего специального образования Литовской ССР. Главное управление геодезии и картографии при Совете Министров СССР. Москва 1981.
- ^ Mercator – Education information, documentation, research. The Polish language education in Lithuania see: graph on p.16 (PDF file, 2.2 MB) Accessed 2008-01-14.
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- ^ a b c d Srebrakowski 2001, pp. 23–25
- ^ S2CID 221629792.
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- ^ Potašenko 2008, pp. 28, 118.
- ^ Marples, David R. "History of Belarus. Lithuanian and Polish rule". britannica.com. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 10 September 2021.
The Union of Lublin (1569) made Poland and Lithuania a single, federated state. Although Lithuania retained the title of grand duchy and its code of laws, its western province Podlasia which had been heavily settled by Polish colonists—was ceded to Poland
- ^ a b Reddaway he, W. F., ed. (1950). The Cambridge History of Poland: From Augustus II to Pilsudski (1697–1935). Cambridge University Press. p. 437.
- ^ a b Potašenko 2008, p. 28.
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- ^ Topolska 1987, p. 160.
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- ^ Topolska 2002, p. 192.
- ^ Potašenko 2008, p. 76.
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- ^ Potašenko 2008, pp. 73–74.
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- ^ Potašenko 2008, p. 73.
- ^ Topolska 1987, p. 155.
- ISBN 978-0875807300.
Vilnius in the mid-17th century was an impressive and wealthy city […] While Poles and Roman Catholicism predominated, Vilnius diverse religious and ethno-linguistic groups managed to live together in the fairly tight urban space.
- ^ Trimonienė 2006, p. 554.
- ^ Rachuba 2010, p. 34.
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- ISBN 9781137573643.
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- ^ Universal Lithuanian Encyclopedia Vol. 11. 2007.
- ^ Januszewska-Jurkiewicz 2010, p. 43.
- ^ Januszewska-Jurkiewicz 2010, p. 45.
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- ^ Juozas, Rainys (1936). P.O.W.: (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa) Lietuvoje. Kaunas: Spaudos fondas. p. 184.
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- League for the Liberation of Vilnius(Vilniaus Vadavimo Safunga, or WS), which trumpeted the irredentist line in its magazine "Our Vilnius" (Mūsų Vilnius).
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Lithuanian nationalists resented demands by Poles for greater cultural autonomy (similar to that granted to the Jewish minority), holding that most of Lithuania's Poles were really deracinated Lithuanians who merely needed to be re-Lithuanianized. Resentments were exacerbated when Lithuanian Poles expressed a desire to "re-unite" the country with Poland. As a result, the nationalizing Lithuanian state took measures to confiscate Polish-owned land. It also restricted Polish religious services, schools, Polish publications, Polish voting rights. Poles were often referred to in the press in this period as the "lice of the nation"
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Było to już po masowej "repatriacji" Polaków z Wileńszczyzny, która w latach 1945–1948 objęła 197 tys. Polaków (w tym z Wilna – 107,6 tys.) oraz kolejnej z lat 1956–1959, która umożliwiła wyjazd do Polski 46,6 tys. osób narodowości polskiej.
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For example, in Vilnius where in the Soviet years education in Polish was offered by some 13–14 schools, only 25 percent of the children born to monoethnic Polish families attended Polish schools. About 50% of them chose Russian schools, and only 10% Lithuanian schools.
- ^ a b Budryte 2005, p. 148.
- ^ Clemens 1991, p. 150; In reality, many Poles in Lithuania were the offspring of Polonized Lithuanians or Belarussians
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{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Jundo-Kaliszewska, Barbara (2019). Zakładnicy historii. Mniejszość polska w postradzieckiej Litwie [Hostages of history. The Polish minority in post-Soviet Lithuania] (in Polish). Łódź.
{{cite book}}
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{{cite book}}
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External links
- Vitalija Stravinskienė, Poles In Lithuania From The Second Half Of 1944 Until 1946: Choosing Between Staying Or Emigrating To Poland, The Lithuanian Institute of History, January 19, 2006
- Chronology for Poles in Lithuania
- The Polish language in education in Lithuania
- Discrimination in Lithuania
- Observance of Polish minority rights in Lithuania Report by «Wspólnota Polska», Union of Poles in Lithuania and the Association of Teachers of Polish Schools in Lithuania, 2009
- The Polish national minority in Lithuania : three reports later.
- Organizacje Polonii na Litwie (Organizations of Polonia in Lithuania) (in Polish)
- Polonia na świecie (Polonia worldwide) with section on Lithuania (in Polish)
- "Polacy na Litwie" (in Polish). Archived from the original on 2005-04-03. (Poles in Lithuania)
- Losy ludności polskiej na Litwie (Fate of Polish population in Lithuania) (in Polish)
- Jan Sienkiewicz, Przestrzeganie praw polskiej grupy etnicznej w Republice Litewskiej (Respecting the rights of the Polish minority in Lithuania) (in Polish)
- Polacy na Litwie w prawie (Lithuanian law on minorities) (in Polish)
- Srebrakowski A., Rozwój polskojęzycznej prasy na terenie Litwy po 1944 r. Archived 2019-04-01 at the Wayback Machine
- Srebrakowski A., Szkolnictwo polskojęzyczne na Litwie 1944–1991 Archived 2019-04-01 at the Wayback Machine
- Srebrakowski A., Polacy w Litewskiej SRR Archived 2020-07-16 at the Wayback Machine
- Srebrakowski A., Statystyczny obraz Polaków z Litwy.