Poles in the United Kingdom

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Poles in the United Kingdom
Polish Dutch, Polish German

British Poles, alternatively known as Polish British people or Polish Britons, are ethnic Poles who are citizens of the United Kingdom. The term includes people born in the UK who are of Polish descent and Polish-born people who reside in the UK. There are approximately 682,000[1] people born in Poland residing in the UK. Since the late 20th century, they have become one of the largest ethnic minorities in the country alongside Irish, Indians, Pakistanis, Bangladeshis, Germans, and Chinese. The Polish language is the second-most spoken language in England and the third-most spoken in the UK after English and Welsh. About 1% of the UK population speaks Polish.[2][3] The Polish population in the UK has increased more than tenfold since 2001.[4]

Exchanges between the two countries date to the middle ages, when the

Polish uprising.[7] A number of Polish exiles fought in the Crimean War on the British side. In the late 19th century governments mounted pogroms against Polish Jews in the Russian (Congress Poland) and Austrian sectors of partitioned Poland (Galicia). Many Polish Jews fled their partitioned homeland, and most emigrated to the United States, but some settled in British cities, especially London, Manchester, Leeds and Kingston upon Hull.[8][9][10][11]

The number of Poles in Britain increased during the

border changes due to the Potsdam Agreement.[13] The Polish government-in-exile, though denied majority international recognition after 1945, remained at its post in London until it formally dissolved in 1991, after a democratically elected president had taken office in Warsaw
.

The

accession states, encouraged Polish people to move to Britain rather than to Germany. Additionally, the Polish diaspora in Britain includes descendants of the nearly 200,000 Polish people who had originally settled in Britain after the Second World War. About one-fifth had moved to settle in other parts of the British Empire.[14][15]

History

Poland Street in London's Soho district (2015)

A Polish cleric named

Edward VI.[16] Laski also spent some years working on the establishment of the Church of England.[16]
Shortly before his death, he was recalled to Poland's royal court.

In the 16th century, when most

Laurentius Grimaldius Goslicius (Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki, a Polish bishop and noble). Gollancz further speculated that the book inspired Shakespeare to create the character Polonius, which is Latin for "Polish".[17]

After Poland's King John III, at the head of a coalition of European armies, defeated the invading Ottoman forces at the 1683 Ottoman siege of Vienna, a pub in London's Soho district was named "The King of Poland" in his honour, and soon afterward the street on which it stands was named Poland Street (and continues to be so to this day). In the 18th century, Polish Protestants settled around Poland Street as religious refugees fleeing the Catholic Reformation in Poland.

18th century

Stanislaus II Augustus, c. 1780 by Marcello Bacciarelli

As a young man of the

King of Poland, stayed in Britain for some months during 1754. On this trip he also came to know Charles Yorke, the Lord Chancellor of Great Britain.[18]

Dulwich Picture Gallery, where the Polish art collection still remains

In 1788, during the closing years of

Four Years Diet or "Great Sejm" whose great achievement was to be the Constitution of 3 May 1791. In that period Poland sought support from the Kingdom of Great Britain in its negotiations with Prussia in an effort to stave off further threats from Russia and from its own plotting magnates
.

In 1790, King Stanislaus Augustus sent

Frederic Chopin) on an embassy to London to meet with Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger. The British were prepared, along with the Dutch, to propose a favourable commercial treaty for Polish goods, especially flax, if Poland ceded the cities of Gdańsk and Toruń
to the Prussians. This condition was unacceptable to Poland.

Stanislaus Augustus also commissioned the London art dealership of Bourgeois and Desenfans to assemble a collection of

third and final Partition.[19] The art collection destined for Poland became the nucleus of the Dulwich Picture Gallery in South London.[20]

19th century

In the 19th century, Polish-British relations took on a cultural dimension, with musical tours in the United Kingdom by virtuosos and composers including

Chopin
, soon to die, gave concerts in Britain in 1848.

During the

(1758–1841).

The

Redemptorist Venerable Fr. Bernard Łubieński (1846–1933) spent many years as a Catholic missionary in England.[32] The Polish Catholic Mission in England and Wales began its pastoral work for Polish émigrés in 1853 with church services in Soho's Sutton Street and with the arrival of Sr. Franciszka Siedliska and two other nuns to start a Polish school.[33]

Michael Marks (Polish: Michał Marks), co-founder of Marks & Spencer
Stanisława de Karłowska by husband, Robert Bevan

The next Polish uprising, the

First Internationale and opponent of Marxist ideology.[34] Polish Jews also fled due to the intensifying anti-Semitic pogroms and better economic opportunities. Among the notable Polish Jews who came to Britain were Henry Lowenfeld theatrical impresario and brewer, Michael Marks (co-founder of Marks & Spencer), Morris Wartski (founder of Wartski antique dealers) and the family of Jack Cohen, the founder of Tesco
.

Joseph Conrad (Józef Korzeniowski), renowned English-language novelist

Perhaps the most famous Polish person to settle in Britain at the end of the 19th century, having gained British citizenship in 1886, was the seafarer turned early

The Nigger of the 'Narcissus', Heart of Darkness, Lord Jim, Nostromo, The Secret Agent, The Duel, Under Western Eyes and Victory, many of which have been turned into films. Another artist to settle in London (1898) was the modernist painter, Stanisława de Karłowska (1876-1952), who married the English artist, Robert Bevan. She helped to found The London Group.[35]

At the end of the 19th-century, along with

St-Petersburg. The political review, "Przedświt" ("Pre-Dawn") was published in Whitechapel for several years, notably under the editorship of Leon Wasilewski 1898–1903, later to become the first foreign minister of a newly independent Poland in 1918.[36]

Both before and after the First World War, a few Poles settled in London – following the

Russian Revolution of 1905 and then in the war, those released from London's prisoner-of-war camps for Germans and Austrians in the Alexandra Palace and at Feltham. In 1910 a sixteen-year old youth from Warsaw settled in London for the sake of his art: he was to be a future ballet master, Stanislas Idzikowski.[37] Polish people living in the Austrian and German
partitions had been obliged to serve in their respective national forces and were unable to return.

The resurgence of an

Leon Ostroróg.[38] This two-decade period of advance was disrupted in September 1939 by a coordinated German and Soviet invasion that marked the beginning of World War II
.

Second World War

Poles marching in Warsaw, after Britain declared war on Germany, during invasion of Poland. Banner reads "Long Live England".

It was the

Polish contribution to the Allied war effort in the United Kingdom that led to the establishment of the postwar Polish community in Britain. During the Second World War, most of the Poles arrived as military or political émigrés as a result of the combined German-Soviet occupation of Poland
.

As the invasion of Poland progressed throughout September 1939, the Polish government evacuated into

occupied Poland
, and the maintenance of international diplomatic relations for the organization of regular Polish military forces in Allied states.

Mathematician Marian Rejewski ca. 1932, when he first "broke" German Enigma cipher

On 4 July 1943 the Polish Prime Minister-in-Exile, General

Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Armed Forces in the West, died in an air crash off Gibraltar as he was returning to Britain from an inspection tour of Polish forces in the Mediterranean theatre. Until the Germans' April 1943 discovery of mass graves of 28,000 executed Polish military reserve officers at Katyn, near Smolensk in Russia, Sikorski had wished to work with the Soviets. After Hitler's invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, the Soviets' importance to the Western alliance had grown while British support for Polish aspirations had begun to decline.[41] As the war progressed, Polish plans to more completely incorporate Poland's underground Home Army into the broader strategy of the Western allies—including contingency plans to move Polish Air Force fighter squadrons, and the Polish Parachute Brigade, to Poland—foundered on British and American reluctance to antagonise a vital Soviet ally hostile to Polish autonomy; on the distance from British-controlled bases to occupied Poland, which lay at the extreme flying range of available aircraft; and on the frittering away of the Polish Parachute Brigade on a patently flawed British operation at Arnhem, the Netherlands.[42]

One of the most important Polish contributions to Allied victory had actually begun in late 1932, nearly seven years before the outbreak of war when the mathematician-

Dwight Eisenhower characterized Ultra as having been "decisive" to Allied victory.[43] Former Bletchley Park cryptologist Gordon Welchman wrote: "Ultra would never have got off the ground if we had not learned from the Polish, in the nick of time, details both of the German military... the Enigma machine, and of the operating procedures that were in use [by the Germans]."[44]

Polish Navy

Operation Peking
, the evacuation of Polish navy destroyers from Poland to Britain in late August 1939

The first Polish military branch to transfer substantial personnel and equipment to the United Kingdom was the

Operation Peking).[45] Two submarines also sailed there, the Orzeł (Eagle) arriving unannounced in Scotland after a daring breakout from the Baltic Sea
following its illegal internment in Estonia.

Bismarck

Polish Navy personnel to come under Royal Navy command comprised 1,400 officers and 4,750 sailors.

Battle of Narvik and completed hundreds of convoys on the Mediterranean Sea and on the Atlantic, before being surrendered to the control of the communist authorities in Warsaw in 1946.[48]

In May 1941, the Polish

Bismarck, drawing its fire for an hour while the Royal Navy caught up in time to destroy the German warship.[49]

, October 1940

The Poles formed the fourth-largest Allied armed force after the Soviets, the Americans, and the combined troops of the British Empire. They were the largest group of

Polish underground army
. By July 1945 there were 228,000 troops of the Polish Armed Forces in the West serving under the British.
the Falaise Gap, Arnhem, Tobruk, and in the liberation of many European cities, including Bologna and Breda.[50]

General Sikorski (left) and Winston Churchill review Polish troops in England, 1943.

The Polish troops who contributed to the

Polish II Corps committed suicide.[52]

Churchill explained the government's actions in a three-day

vote of confidence. Many MPs openly criticised Churchill over Yalta and voiced strong loyalty to the UK's Polish allies.[52] Churchill may not have been confident that Poland would be the independent and democratic country to which Polish troops could return; he said: "His Majesty's Government will never forget the debt they owe to the Polish troops... I earnestly hope it will be possible for them to have citizenship and freedom of the British Empire, if they so desire."[53]

During the debate, 25 MPs and Peers risked their future political careers to draft an amendment protesting against the UK's acceptance of a geographically reconfigured Poland's integration into the Soviet sphere of influence, thereby shifting it westwards into the heart of Europe. These members included

Sir Alec Douglas-Home, Lord Willoughby de Eresby, and Victor Raikes.[52] After the amendment was defeated, Henry Strauss, MP for Norwich, resigned his seat in protest at the British government's abandonment of Poland.[52]

The Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum in London are the repository for archival material relating to this period.[54]

Private Wojtek

Wojtek (right) and fellow Polish soldier, 1943

During their 1942 evacuation from the Soviet Union to the

Italian campaign
. In Italy he helped shift ammunition crates and became a celebrity with visiting Allied generals and statesmen.

In order to bring him to Italy, as regimental mascots and pets were not allowed onboard transport ships, the bear was formally enrolled as Private Wojciech Perski (his surname being the Polish adjective meaning "Persian"; Wojtek is the diminutive for Wojciech).

After the war, mustered out of the Polish Army, Wojtek was billeted, and lived out his retirement, at the Edinburgh Zoo, where he was visited by fellow exiles and former Polish comrades-in-arms and won the affection of the public. Posthumously he has inspired books, films, plaques, and statues in the UK and Poland.[55]

Post World War II

Polish Resettlement Corps 1946–49

Following the invasion of Poland in September 1939, many thousands of Polish servicemen and women made their way via Hungary and Romania (which then had common borders with Poland) to France, where they again fought against the invading Germans; and in 1942 the newly formed Polish Second Corps evacuated from the Soviet Union, via Iran, to the Near East, subsequently fighting in campaigns there and in North Africa, Italy, and northwest Europe. Some Second Corps personnel transferred from the Near East into Polish Armed Services units in the UK.

At war's end, many of the Poles were transported to, and stayed in, camps in the United Kingdom. In order to ease their transition from a Polish-British military environment to British civilian life, a satisfactory means of demobilisation was sought by British authorities. This took the form of a Polish Resettlement Corps (PRC), as an integral corps of the British Army, into which the Poles who wished to stay in the UK could enlist for the transitional period of their demobilisation.

The PRC was formed in 1946 (Army Order 96 of 1946) and was disbanded after fulfilling its purpose in 1949 (Army Order 2 of 1950).[56]

Polish Resettlement Act 1947

Polish Hearth Club, Exhibition Road, London, a Polish "hub" during and after WW II

When the Second World War ended, a communist government was installed in Poland. Most Poles

Home Army. To accommodate Poles unable to return to their home country, Britain enacted the Polish Resettlement Act 1947, Britain's first mass immigration law. Initially, a very large Polish community was centred around Swindon
, where many military personnel had been stationed during the war.

After occupying Polish Resettlement Corps camps, many Poles settled in London and other conurbations, many of them recruited as European Volunteer Workers.

Polish Australian
communities, or in the United States and Argentina.

Post-war dispersal and settlement

In the 1951 UK Census, some 162,339 residents had listed Poland as their birthplace, up from 44,642 in 1931.

POW camps and war wounded needing additional help adapting to civilian life. This help was provided by a range of charitable endeavours, some coordinated by Sue Ryder (1924–2000), a British humanitarian who, as Baroness Ryder of Warsaw, was later raised to the House of Lords and spoke there in the cause of Poland.[59]

hospice-movement
pioneer

Another British woman, Dame

Entrance to St Andrew Bobola Church, Hammersmith

Britain's Polish immigrants tended to settle in areas near Polish churches and food outlets. In West London, they settled in Earl's Court, known in the 1950s as the "Polish Corridor", in reference to the interwar Central European political entity and, as house prices rose, they moved to Hammersmith, then Ealing, and in South London, to Lewisham and Balham. As these communities grew, even if many Poles had integrated with local British educational and religious institutions, the Polish Catholic Mission in England and Wales, in agreement with the English and Scottish hierarchies, considered that Polish priests should minister to Polish parishioners.[61] The original Polish church in London in Devonia Road, Islington was bought in 1928 with much delay, following the First World War. However canonically, subsequent Polish "parishes" are actually branches of the Polish Catholic Mission and not parishes in the conventional sense and are accountable to the episcopate in Poland, through a vicar delegate, although each is located in a British Catholic diocese, to whom it owes the courtesy of being connected. The first post-war Polish "parish" in London was attached to Brompton Oratory in South Kensington, followed by a chapel in Willesden staffed by Polish Jesuits. Brockley-Lewisham was founded in 1951, followed by Clapham, while St Andrew Bobola church in Shepherd's Bush (1962) was regarded as the "Polish garrison" church. Among its many commemorative plaques is one to a clairvoyant and healer housewife and Soviet deportee, Waleria Sikorzyna: she had had a detailed premonitory dream two years before the 1939 invasion of Poland, but was politely dismissed by the Polish military authorities.[62][63] Currently the Polish Catholic Mission operates around 219 parishes and pastoral centres with 114 priests throughout England and Wales.[64] In 2007 Cardinal Cormac Murphy-O'Connor, primate of England, expressed concern "that Poles are creating a separate Church in Britain", but Polish rector, Mgr Kukla, responded that the Polish Catholic Mission continued to have a "good relationship" with the hierarchy in England and Wales and said that integration was a long process.[65]

Cultural and educational ties with Poland

Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum, a leading Polish archive and museum in London founded on 2 May 1945

The social make-up of successive waves of Polish migration to the UK is comparable to 19th- and early-20th-century Polish migrations to France.

Georgians, Ruthenians, and people of Muslim Tatar
descent. In both cases, they were followed by waves of more socially-homogeneous economic migrants.

Since the Second World War, Poland has lost much of its earlier ethnic diversity, with the exception of Polska Roma, a distinct ethnolinguistic group and other Polish Roma communities, and this has been reflected in recent Polish migrations to the UK.[67][68] A recent study of comparative literature by Mieczysŀaw Dąbrowski, of Warsaw University, appears to bear this out.[69]

A key military and latterly, news and cultural role was played by broadcasts in Polish, beamed to Poland, from London by the

English by radio
ended on 23 December 2005, a victim of budgetary cuts and new priorities.

Across the mainland UK, in the late 1940s and early 1950s, the original Polish communities chiefly comprised former members of the Polish Resettlement Corps. They set up Polish clubs, cultural centres, and adult and youth organisations, e.g., the Polish Youth Group (KSMP). They contributed to, and in turn were supported by, veterans' welfare charities such as veterans' SPK (Stowarzyszenie Polskich Kombatantów), airmen's and naval clubs. These organisations' original aims were to provide venues for socialising and exposure to Polish culture and heritage for children of former Polish Resettlement Corps members. Many of these groups remain active, and steps are being taken to cater to more recent Polish migrants.

The post-war phase saw a continuation of Polish intellectual and political life in microcosm in the UK, with the publication of newspapers and journals such as

New Oxford Street, London in 1946 and eventually bought by Jerzy Kulczycki in 1972.[70][71][72] Poles in London played their part in the blossoming of modern art movements during the Swinging Sixties. Chief among them were two gallery owners, the painter, Halima Nałęcz, at the Drian Gallery in Bayswater and the pharmacist and philanthropist, Mateusz Grabowski with his Grabowski Gallery in Sloane Avenue, Chelsea, London. Grabowski promoted Polish and other diaspora artists, such as Pauline Boty, Frank Bowling, Józef Czapski, Stanisław Frenkiel, Bridget Riley and Aubrey Williams.[73][74]

Concern for the maintenance of Polish language and culture in the UK was entrusted to the "Polska Macierz Szkolna" – Polish Educational Society, a voluntary organization that operated a network of Saturday schools. Parishes also organized an active Polish scout movement (

Lubomirska. The prince was himself laid to rest there in 1976.[80] It is Grade II listed by English Heritage.[81]

Polish Social and Cultural Centre (POSK) building, Hammersmith

As a result of the 1939 invasion of Poland, the entirety of Polish universities and academic research fell into disarray. Although very reduced tertiary teaching continued underground, many academics perished in

PUNO" (Polski Uniwersytet na Obczyznie) – The Polish University Abroad was founded in 1949, offering humanities subjects in Polish. It exists to this day with a London base at the Polish Social and Cultural Centre in Hammersmith and has opened departments in other European countries.[84]
During the Cold War, Poles assembled twice in the UK to mark historic national events. The first was in 1966 the
Pope John Paul II, to the United Kingdom in 1982. While the Pope visited nine British cities and was welcomed by two million British Roman Catholics and others, a Mass specifically for 20,000 Polish faithful was held at the Crystal Palace stadium in London on Sunday 30 May.[86]

Symbolism of political governance

From left: Piotr Kownacki, Aleksander Kwaśniewski, Ryszard Kaczorowski, Lech Wałęsa, on 20th anniversary of re-establishment of Polish Senate in Warsaw

In December 1990, when

Polish National Council as the "virtual opposition" to the communist regime in Poland it held little sway with the Polish diaspora in the UK.[89] Instead, London came to be seen as an important centre for fostering business and cultural relations with contemporary Poland.[90]

Economic activity

For the duration of the

Lwow.[93] With banking agreements with Poland in place, the travel companies acted as transfer bureaux via the Polish bank PKO
.

The relaxation of travel restrictions to and from Poland after October 1956 saw a steady increase in Polish exchanges with the United Kingdom in the 1950s. In the 1960s a purge of communist party members and intellectuals of Jewish descent led to a further influx of Poles into the UK. Only with the accession of Edward Gierek in 1970 as First Secretary of the Polish Workers' Party (PZPR), who himself had spent time as a migrant in France and Belgium, did it become possible for Poles to leave their country with relative ease.

The Polish Trustee Association, founded by the Ex-Combatants (SPK), handled legacies left by Polish DPs for their kin in Poland.[94]

Remembrance

Mieczysław Lubelski's memorial to Polish airmen at Northolt

Polish servicemen who died in the

Norwood and Putney Vale cemeteries.[95]

The

Franciszek Kornicki (1916–2017) is the last Polish fighter pilot to die. His funeral was held in November 2017.[97]

Katyn Monument

By contrast, the wish of the British Polish community to honour its 28,000 fellow countrymen, many of them close relatives, who fell victim of the Katyn massacre with a memorial met with sustained obstruction from the British authorities. This, it appears, was owing to the effective diplomatic pressure exerted by the

East-West relations in the mid 1970s, allowed a monument to be installed inside Gunnersbury Cemetery. There was no official British attendance at the unveiling in September 1976. Those British officials who came, did so in their private capacity.[98]

There are now over a dozen Polish war memorials across the UK, including in the RAF church, St Clement Danes in the City of London and St Andrew Bobola Church, Hammersmith.[99]

21st-century economic immigration

Polish natives employed in UK, 2003–10.[100]
Grocery stores opened up across the UK after Poland joined the EU in 2004, such as this deli in Coventry
.
Polish pierogi bar in West Yorkshire

During the twentieth century, world events meant that in Europe, London eclipsed

grey economy
.

Poland joined the EU on 1 May 2004 and Poles, as EU citizens, gained the right to freedom of movement and establishment across the European Union. Most member states, though, had negotiated temporary restrictions to their labour markets, up to a maximum of seven years, for citizens from new member states. To the contrary, the UK (as Sweden too) granted immediate full access to its labour market to citizens from the new member states.[101][102] over entrants from these accession states,[103][104]

Seven-year temporary restrictions on benefits that EU citizens including Poles could claim, covered by the

Worker Registration Scheme, ended in 2011.[105]

The Home Office publishes quarterly statistics on applications to the Worker Registration Scheme. Figures published in August 2007 indicated that some 656,395 persons were accepted on to the scheme between 1 May 2004 and 30 June 2007, of whom 430,395 were Polish nationals. However, as the scheme is voluntary, offers no financial incentive and is not enforced; immigrants are free to choose whether or not to participate. They may work legally in the UK provided they have a Polish identity card or passport and a UK National Insurance number. This has led to some estimates of Polish nationals in the UK being much higher.[106] Department of Work and Pensions (DWP) publishes quarterly reports containing data on National Insurance number (NINo) allocations to adult overseas nationals entering the UK.[107] The number of Polish nationals’ NINo registrations peaked between 2006 and 2008. In the financial year 2006/07 there were 220,430 Polish nationals receiving NINo registration (31% of all NINo registrations to adult overseas nationals entering the UK) and in 2007/2008- 210,660 (29% of all registrations to adult overseas nationals).[108] The number of NINo registrations granted to Polish citizens has been in significant decline since 2016 referendum. In the year to June 2016 Polish born adults received 105 thousand NINo's, 18% less than in the year before a 13% share of all NINo registrations to adult overseas nationals entering the UK.[109] The latest statistical data covering the year to the end of March 2020 shows a further decrease in Polish NINo registrations. During this period 38 thousand Polish citizens received NINos - 13% less than in the previous year and a significantly smaller share of all adult overseas registrations compared with previous years - 5%.[110]

The Polish magazine Polityka launched a 'Stay With Us' scheme offering young academics a £5,000 bonus to encourage them to live and work at home in Poland. Additionally on 20 October 2007, a campaign was launched by the British Polish Chamber of Commerce called "Wracaj do Polski" ('Come Back to Poland') which encouraged Poles living and working in the UK to return home.

By the end of 2007, stronger economic growth in Poland than in the UK, falling unemployment and the rising strength of the Polish

2008 economic downturn.[111] Labour shortages in Polish cities and in sectors such as construction, IT and financial services have also played a part in stemming the flow of Poles to the UK.[112]
According to the August 2007 Accession Monitoring Report, fewer Poles migrated in the first half of 2007 than in the same period in 2006.

Demographics

Historical population
YearPop.±%
2001 66,000—    
2002 68,000+3.0%
2003 75,000+10.3%
2004 94,000+25.3%
2005 162,000+72.3%
2006 265,000+63.6%
2007 411,000+55.1%
2008 504,000+22.6%
2009 529,000+5.0%
2010 540,000+2.1%
2011 654,000+21.1%
2012 658,000+0.6%
2013 688,000+4.6%
2014 790,000+14.8%
2015 831,000+5.2%
2016 911,000+9.6%
2017 922,000+1.2%
2018 832,000−9.8%
2019 695,000−16.5%
2020 691,000−0.6%
2021 682,000−1.3%
Note: Apart from the actual
2011 Census figures, the numbers in the central column are ONS estimates of the number of Polish-born residents. See source for 95 per cent confidence intervals.
Source: [113]

Population size

The

2001 UK Census recorded 60,711 Polish-born UK residents;[114] 60,680 of these resided in Great Britain (not including Northern Ireland), compared to 73,951 in 1991.[115] Following immigration after Poland's accession to the EU, the Office for National Statistics estimated that 832,000 Polish-born residents lived in the UK by 2018, making Poles the largest overseas-born group, having outgrown the Indian-born population.[116] Unofficial estimates from 2007 had put the number of Poles living in the UK higher, at up to one million.[117][118][119]

The

2011 UK Census recorded 579,121 Polish-born residing in England, 18,023 in Wales,[120] 55,231 in Scotland,[121] and 19,658 in Northern Ireland.[122]

The Office for National Statistics estimates that the Polish-born population of the UK was 691,000 in 2020.[123] The 2021 census recorded 743,083 Polish-born residents in England and Wales[124] and 22,335 in Northern Ireland.[125] The census in Scotland was delayed for a year and took place in 2022 and country of birth statistics are yet to be released.[126]

Geographic distribution

Distribution of Polish-born people by ward in London.
  0.0%-1.99%
  2%-2.99%
  3%-4.99%
  5%-6.99%
  7%-8.99%
  9% and greater
Polish-speakers in England and Wales

According to the

Waltham Forest, Barnet. Outside London, the largest Polish communities are in: Birmingham, Southampton, Slough (8,341; 5.9%), Luton, Leeds, Peterborough, Nottingham, Manchester, Leicester, Coventry and the Borough of Boston in Lincolnshire (2,975; 4.6%).[127]

Scotland has seen a significant influx of Polish immigrants. Estimates of the number of Poles living in Scotland in 2007 ranged from 40,000 (General Register Office for Scotland) to 50,000 (the Polish Council).[128] The 2011 UK Census recorded 11,651 people in Edinburgh born in Poland, which is 2.4% of the city's population – a higher proportion than anywhere else in Scotland apart from Aberdeen, where 2.7% were born in Poland.[129]

In Northern Ireland, the number of people reporting in the 2011 census that they were born in Poland was 19,658,[122] and the number stating that they spoke Polish as a first language was 17,700.[130] Despite a Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) recruitment drive in November 2006 that attracted 968 applications from Poles, with language exams being held both in Northern Ireland and in Warsaw, as of 2008, none had entered the PSNI's ranks.[131][132] The first Polish national to join the PSNI started working in August 2010.[133]

Employment and social activities

Federation of Poles in Great Britain logo

In London and various other major cities, Poles are employed across virtually all sectors from care work, construction, hospitality sector to education, NHS, banking and financial services. There is a significant group of people involved in the arts, in writing, journalism and photography. In rural areas of low-population density, such as East Anglia and the East Midlands; Polish workers tend to be employed in agriculture[134] and light industry.[135]

The Polish Social and Cultural Centre in

Polish history and culture among British people
.

Since Poland's accession to the European Union in 2004, Polish delicatessens, with regular deliveries of fresh produce from Poland, are an increasingly familiar feature along British streets and foodstuffs from Poland are supplied to most of the supermarket chains.[101] New publications in Polish have joined the pre-existing titles, including several free magazines carrying news and features and filled with advertising are booming. A local newspaper in Blackpool is one of a handful of British newspapers to have its own online edition in Polish called Witryna Polska.[136]

Social questions

Education

Many Poles who have migrated to the UK since the enlargement of the EU have brought children with them. The young families have created some pressure on schools and English-language support services.

A-Level, on the grounds that they were no longer cost-effective due to "falling popularity"; but these plans were scrapped in the wake of protests in Parliament and a petition co-ordinated by the Polish Educational Society.[139]

Integration and intermarriage

Polish newcomers to the United Kingdom follow previous patterns of ethnic integration, depending on where they can afford to live, on their educational and employment status, and on the presence of other ethnicities. In 2012 most of the 21,000 children born to Polish mothers had Polish fathers; the remainder had fathers of other backgrounds.[140] In 2014 there were 16,656 children born with Polish mothers and fathers from European backgrounds (Other white and white British). Some 702 children were recorded as born to Polish mothers and fathers from African backgrounds, and 749 children born to Polish mothers and fathers from Asian and Middle Eastern backgrounds.[1]

Polonophobia in Britain

Bilingual sign in Scotland: the English text tells fishers of limits, while the Polish text says "Private water, no fishing."

As noted, there was an increase in Polish workers in Britain in the early twenty-first century. There were incidents of resistance or ethnic discrimination. In 2007, Polish people living in Britain reported 42 "racially motivated violent attacks" against them, compared with 28 in 2004.[141] On 11 July 2012, the Polish Association of Northern Ireland called for action after Polish flags were burned on Eleventh Night bonfires in several locations across Belfast.[142]

On 26 July 2008, The Times published a comment piece by restaurant reviewer Giles Coren, who expressed negative sentiments towards Poles, in part due to his belief that Christian Poles had forced his Jewish ancestors to flee Poland because of anti-Semitic attacks on them after the Holocaust and the Second World War. Coren used the term "Polack" to refer to the Polish diaspora in Britain, arguing that "if England is not the land of milk and honey it appeared to them three or four years ago, then, frankly, they can clear off out of it".[143]

The far-right British National Party (BNP) have expressed anti-Polish sentiments in their political campaigns,[144] and campaigned for a ban on all Polish migrant workers to Britain. The party used an image of a Second World War Spitfire fighter plane, under the slogan "Battle for Britain", during the party's 2009 European Elections campaign. But the photograph was of a Spitfire belonging to the Polish No.303 Squadron of the Royal Air Force. John Hemming, Liberal Democrat MP for Yardley, Birmingham, ridiculed the BNP for accidentally using an image of Polish aeroplanes in their campaign: "[t]hey have a policy to send Polish people back to Poland – yet they are fronting their latest campaign using this plane."[145]

In January 2014, a Polish man, whose helmet was emblazoned with the flag of Poland,[146] claimed he was attacked by a group of fifteen men outside a pub in Dagenham, London.[147] The victim blamed speeches of then-Conservative Prime Minister David Cameron for causing the attack.[148] During the same month in Belfast, there were seven attacks on Polish homes within ten days; stones and bricks were thrown at the windows.[149]

Notable persons

The following persons are notable Poles who have lived in the United Kingdom, or notable Britons of Polish descent.

Science and technology

Helen Czerski at Thinking Digital 2012

Written word

ven. Bernard Łubieński C.Ss.R
Witkacy
Stefania Kossowska by her husband, Adam Kossowski
Waldemar Januszczak

Visual arts

Walery's 1887 photo portrait of Victoria, Empress of India, NPG

Music

Irena Anders, as Renata Bogdanska, 1940s

Performing arts

Sir John Gielgud, 1973, by Allan Warren

Politics

Ed Miliband as leader at Labour Party conference, 2010

Business

Lowenfeld's Kops Brewery, Fulham
  • Jack Cohen (1898–1979) – founder of Tesco, was the son of Polish Jewish immigrants.[212]
  • Mateusz Bronisław Grabowski (1904–1976) – pharmacist from
    Wilno, who became a philanthropist to the arts and academic research[74]
  • Nicola Horlick (born 1960) – investment fund manager dubbed 'Superwoman', is half Polish.
  • Henry Lowenfeld (1859–1931) – entrepreneur and theatrical impresario who introduced non-alcoholic beer to Fulham[213]
  • Marks & Spencer
  • Peter Rachman (1919–1962) – notorious landlord whose malpractice gained an entry in the Oxford English Dictionary[214]
  • John J. Studzinski (born 1956) – American-British banker and philanthropist of Polish descent[215][216]

Sport

Phil Jagielka playing for Everton, 2014

Scottish connection

Czerkawska
Gen. Maczek

See also

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