Policy
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Policy is a deliberate system of
Policy is a blueprint of the organizational activities which are repetitive/routine in nature.
In contrast, policies to assist in objective decision-making are usually operational in nature and can be objectively tested, e.g. password policy.[1]
The term may apply to government, public sector organizations and groups, as well as individuals,
Policy or
It has been argued that policies ought to be evidence-based. An individual or organization is justified in claiming that a specific policy is evidence-based if, and only if, three conditions are met. First, the individual or organization possesses comparative evidence about the effects of the specific policy in comparison to the effects of at least one alternative policy. Second, the specific policy is supported by this evidence according to at least one of the individual’s or organization’s preferences in the given policy area. Third, the individual or organization can provide a sound account for this support by explaining the evidence and preferences that lay the foundation for the claim.[3]
Policies are dynamic; they are not just static lists of goals or laws. Policy blueprints have to be implemented, often with unexpected results. Social policies are what happens 'on the ground' when they are implemented, as well as what happens at the decision making or
When the term policy is used, it may also refer to:[4]
- Official government policy (legislation or guidelines that govern how laws should be put into operation)
- Broad ideas and goals in political manifestos and pamphlets
- A company or organization's policy on a particular topic. For example, the equal opportunity policy of a company shows that the company aims to treat all its staff equally.
The actions the organization actually takes may often vary significantly from stated policy. This difference is sometimes caused by political compromise over policy, while in other situations it is caused by lack of policy implementation and enforcement. Implementing policy may have unexpected results, stemming from a policy whose reach extends further than the problem it was originally crafted to address. Additionally, unpredictable results may arise from selective or idiosyncratic enforcement of policy.[4]
Effects
Intended effects and policy-design
The intended effects of a policy vary widely according to the organization and the context in which they are made. Broadly, policies are typically instituted to avoid some negative effect that has been noticed in the organization, or to seek some positive benefit.[citation needed]
A
Corporate purchasing policies provide an example of how organizations attempt to avoid negative effects. Many large companies have policies that all purchases above a certain value must be performed through a purchasing process. By requiring this standard purchasing process through policy, the organization can limit waste and standardize the way purchasing is done.[7]
The State of
Unintended
Policies frequently have side effects or
The policy formulation process theoretically includes an attempt to assess as many areas of potential policy impact as possible, to lessen the chances that a given policy will have unexpected or unintended consequences.[10]
Cycle
In political science, the policy cycle is a tool used for analyzing the development of a policy. It can also be referred to as a "stages model" or "stages heuristic". It is thus a rule of thumb rather than the actual reality of how policy is created, but has been influential in how political scientists looked at policy in general.[11] It was developed as a theory from Harold Lasswell's work. It is called the policy cycle as the final stage (evaluation) often leads back to the first stage (problem definition), thus restarting the cycle.
Harold Lasswell's popular model of the policy cycle divided the process into seven distinct stages, asking questions of both how and why public policies should be made.[12] With the stages ranging from (1) intelligence, (2) promotion, (3) prescription, (4) invocation, (5) application, (6) termination and (7) appraisal, this process inherently attempts to combine policy implementation to formulated policy goals.[13]
One version by James E. Anderson, in his Public Policy-Making (1974) has the following stages:
- Agenda setting (Problem identification) – The recognition of certain subject as a problem demanding further government attention.
- Policy formulation – Involves exploring a variation of options or alternative courses of action available for addressing the problem. (appraisal, dialogue, formulation, and consolidation)
- Decision-making – Government decides on an ultimate course of action, whether to perpetuate the policy status quo or alter it. (Decision could be 'positive', 'negative', or 'no-action')
- Implementation – The ultimate decision made earlier will be put into practice.
- Policy actorsattempt to determine whether the course of action is a success or failure by examining its impact and outcomes.
Anderson's version of the stages model is the most common and widely recognized out of the models. However, it could also be seen as flawed. According to Paul A. Sabatier, the model has "outlived its usefulness" and should be replaced.[14] The model's issues have led to a paradoxical situation in which current research and updated versions of the model continue to rely on the framework created by Anderson. But the very concept of the stages model has been discredited, which attacks the cycle's status as a heuristic.[15]
Due to these problems, alternative and newer versions of the model have aimed to create a more comprehensive view of the policy cycle. An eight step policy cycle is developed in detail in The Australian Policy Handbook by Peter Bridgman and Glyn Davis: (now with Catherine Althaus in its 4th and 5th editions)
- Issue identification
- Policy analysis
- Consultation (which permeates the entire process)
- Policy instrument development
- Building coordination and coalitions
- Program Design: Decision making
- Policy Implementation
- Policy Evaluation
The Althaus, Bridgman & Davis model is
Content
Policies are typically promulgated through official written documents. Policy documents often come with the endorsement or signature of the executive powers within an organization to legitimize the policy and demonstrate that it is considered in force. Such documents often have standard formats that are particular to the organization issuing the policy. While such formats differ in form, policy documents usually contain certain standard components including:
- A purpose statement, outlining why the organization is issuing the policy, and what its desired effect or outcome of the policy should be.
- An applicability and scope statement, describing who the policy affects and which actions are impacted by the policy. The applicability and scope may expressly exclude certain people, organizations, or actions from the policy requirements. Applicability and scope is used to focus the policy on only the desired targets, and avoid unintended consequences where possible.
- An effective date which indicates when the policy comes into force. Retroactive policies are rare, but can be found.
- A responsibilities section, indicating which parties and organizations are responsible for carrying out individual policy statements. Many policies may require the establishment of some ongoing function or action. For example, a purchasing policy might specify that a purchasing office be created to process purchase requests, and that this office would be responsible for ongoing actions. Responsibilities often include identification of any relevant oversight and/or governance structures.
- Policy statements indicating the specific regulations, requirements, or modifications to organizational behavior that the policy is creating. Policy statements are extremely diverse depending on the organization and intent, and may take almost any form.
Some policies may contain additional sections, including:
- Background, indicating any reasons, history, ethical background statements, and/or intent that led to the creation of the policy, which may be listed as motivating factors. This information is often quite valuable when policies must be evaluated or used in ambiguous situations, just as the intent of a law can be useful to a court when deciding a case that involves that law.
- Definitions, providing clear and unambiguous definitions for terms and concepts found in the policy document.
Types
The American political scientist
Policies may be classified in many different ways. The following is a sample of several different types of policies broken down by their effect on members of the organization.[4]
Distributive
Distributive policies involve government allocation of resources, services, or benefits to specific groups or individuals in society. The primary characteristic of distributive policies is that they aim to provide goods or services to a targeted group without significantly reducing the availability or benefits for other groups. These policies are often designed to promote economic or social equity. Examples include subsidies for farmers, social welfare programs, and funding for public education.
Regulatory
Regulatory policies aim to control or regulate the behavior and practices of individuals, organizations, or industries. These policies are intended to address issues related to public safety, consumer protection, and environmental conservation. Regulatory policies involve government intervention in the form of laws, regulations, and oversight. Examples include environmental regulations, labor laws, and safety standards for food and drugs. Another example of a fairly successful public regulatory policy is that of a highway speed limit.[4]
Constituent
Constituent policies are less concerned with the allocation of resources or regulation of behavior, and more focused on representing the preferences and values of the public. These policies involve addressing public concerns and issues that may not have direct economic or regulatory implications. They often reflect the broader values and beliefs of the society. Constituent policies can include symbolic gestures, such as resolutions recognizing historical events or designating official state symbols. Constituent policies also deal with fiscal policy in some circumstances.[4]
Redistributive
Redistributive policies involve the transfer of resources or benefits from one group to another, typically from the wealthy or privileged to the less advantaged. These policies seek to reduce economic or social inequality by taking from those with more and providing for those with less. Progressive taxation, welfare programs, and financial assistance to low-income households are examples of redistributive policies.
Notable schools
- Balsillie School of International Affairs
- Blavatnik School of Government
- Goldman School of Public Policy at the University of California Berkeley
- London School of Economics
- King's College London
- The University of Chicago Harris School of Public Policy
- Heinz College of Information Systems and Public Policy at Carnegie Mellon University
- Harvard Kennedy School of Government
- Hertie School of Governance
- Munk School of Global Affairs and Public Policy
- Norman Paterson School of International Affairs
- Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies
- Princeton School of Public and International Affairs
- Sciences Po Paris
- University of Cambridge
- University of Glasgow
- University of Warwick
- Paris Nanterre University
Subtypes
- Company policy
- Communications and information policy
- Human resource policies
- Privacy policy
- Public policy
- Defense policy
- Domestic policy
- Economic policy
- Education policy
- Energy policy
- Environmental policy
- Foreign policy
- Forest policy
- Health policy
- Macroeconomic policy
- Monetary policy
- Plan
- Population policy
- Public policy in law
- Science policy
- Security policy
- Social policy
- Urban policy
- Transport policy
- Water policy
Induction of policies
In contemporary systems of market-oriented economics and of homogeneous voting of delegates and decisions, policy mixes are usually introduced depending on factors that include popularity in the public (influenced via media and education as well as by cultural identity), contemporary economics (such as what is beneficial or a burden in the long- and near-term within it) and a general state of international competition (often the focus of geopolitics). Broadly, considerations include political competition with other parties and social stability as well as national interests within the framework of global dynamics.[17][additional citation(s) needed]
Policies or policy-elements can be designed and proposed by a multitude of actors or collaborating actor-networks in various ways.[18] Alternative options as well as organisations and decision-makers that would be responsible for enacting these policies – or explaining their rejection – can be identified. "Policy sequencing" is a concept that integrates mixes of existing or hypothetical policies and arranges them in a sequential order. The use of such frameworks may make complex polycentric governance for the achievement of goals such as climate change mitigation and stoppage of deforestation more easily achievable or more effective, fair, efficient, legitimate and rapidly implemented.[19][20][21][22][additional citation(s) needed]
Contemporary ways of policy-making or
In the modern highly interconnected world, polycentric governance has become ever more important – such "requires a complex combination of multiple levels and diverse types of organizations drawn from the public, private, and voluntary sectors that have overlapping realms of responsibility and functional capacities".[25] Key components of policies include command-and-control measures, enabling measures, monitoring, incentives and disincentives.[19]
Science-based policy, related to the more narrow concept of evidence-based policy, may have also become more important. A review about worldwide pollution as a major cause of death – where it found little progress, suggests that successful control of conjoined threats such as pollution, climate change, and biodiversity loss requires a global, "formal science–policy interface", e.g. to "inform intervention, influence research, and guide funding".[26] Broadly, science–policy interfaces include both science in policy and science for policy.[27]
See also
- Artificial intelligence in government
- Blueprint
- Distributive tendency
- Iron triangle
- Mandate (politics)
- Overton window
- Pattern language
- Policy alienation
- Policy analysis
- Policy Governance
- Policy studies
- Political science
- Program evaluation
- Public administration
- Public health
- Public policy (law)
- Public policy schools
- Public services
- Social contract
- Social welfare
- Social work
- Think tank
Notes
- ^ For more information on the effect of tax policy on state revenues, see Laffer curve.
References
- ^ Office, Publications. "What is policy". sydney.edu.au. Retrieved 15 April 2018.
- ^ Voican, Mădălina (2008). "Government's Role in Coordination of Decision- Making Process". Revista de Științe Politics. Journal of Political Science (17): 26–31.
- license.
- ^ JSTOR 974990.
- ^ "Most international treaties are ineffective, Canadian study finds". CTVNews. 3 August 2022. Retrieved 15 September 2022.
- PMID 35914153.
- University press release: "Do international treaties actually work? Study says they mostly don't". York University. Retrieved 15 September 2022.
- S2CID 168835724.
- . Retrieved 7 June 2023.
- ^ Lai, Yu-Bong (2006). "Capital Tax Competition in the Presence of Rent-Shifting Incentives" (PDF). 經濟研究 (Taipei Economic Inquiry). 42 (1): 1–24. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
- ISSN 0276-8739.
- ^ Nakamura 1987.
- ^ Laswell, H(1971). A Pre-View of Policy Sciences. New York, Elsevier.
- ^ Howlett, M. (2011) Designing public policies: principles and instruments. Routledge.
- S2CID 153841704.
- ISBN 978-1-4200-1700-7.
- ^ Young, John and Enrique Mendizabal. Helping researchers become policy entrepreneurs, Overseas Development Institute, London, September 2009.
- ISBN 978-1-351-02394-8.
- S2CID 157209343.
- ^ S2CID 239890357.
- S2CID 158217818.
- S2CID 92543128.
- ^ a b "Timing is everything: Researchers reveal why the right sequence of policies is essential to slow deforestation". Stanford University. Retrieved 23 November 2021.
- S2CID 155023873.
- S2CID 153785609.
- ISSN 1541-0072.
- S2CID 248905224.
- ^ "Science-Policy Interface Platform". Major Group for Children and Youth. Retrieved 10 July 2022.
Bibliography
- Althaus, Catherine; Bridgman, Peter; Davis, Glyn (2007). The Australian Policy Handbook (4th ed.). Sydney: Allen & Unwin.
- Blakemore, Ken (1998). Social Policy: an Introduction. Buckingham; Philadelphia: Open University Press.
- Dye, Thomas R. (1976). Policy Analysis. University of Alabama Press.
- Greenberg, George D.; et al. (December 1977). "Developing Public Policy Theory: Perspectives from Empirical Research". American Political Science Review. 71 (4): 1532–1543. S2CID 145741414.
- Heckathorn, Douglas D.; Maser, Steven M. (1990). "The Contractual Architecture of Public Policy: A Critical Reconstruction of Lowi's Typology". The Journal of Politics. 52 (4): 1101–1123. S2CID 154496294.
- Jenkins, William (1978). Policy Analysis: A Political and Organizational Perspective. London: Martin Robertson.
- Kellow, Aynsley (Summer 1988). "Promoting Elegance in Policy Theory: Simplifying Lowi's Arenas of Power". Policy Studies Journal. 16 (4): 713–724. .
- Lowi, Theodore J.; Bauer, Raymond A.; De Sola Pool, Ithiel; Dexter, Lewis A. (1964). "American Business, Public Policy, Case-Studies, and Political Theory". World Politics. 16 (4): 687–713. S2CID 154980260.
- Lowi, Theodore J. (1972). "Four Systems of Policy, Politics, and Choice". JSTOR 974990.
- Lowi, Theodore J. (1985). "The State in Politics". In Noll, Roger G. (ed.). Regulatory Policy and the social Sciences. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 67–110.
- Müller, Pierre; Surel, Yves (1998). L'analyse des politiques publiques (in French). Paris: Montchrestien.
- Nakamura, Robert T. (September 1987). "The textbook policy process and implementation research". .
- Paquette, Laure (2002). Analyzing National and International Policy. Rowman Littlefield.
- Smith, K. B. (2002). "Typologies, Taxonomies, and the Benefits of Policy Classification". Policy Studies Journal. 30 (3): 379–395. .
- Spitzer, Robert J. (June 1987). "Promoting Policy Theory: Revising the Arenas of Power". Policy Studies Journal. 15 (4): 675–689. .
Further reading
- K. Cummins, Linda (2011). Policy Practice for Social Workers: New Strategies for a New Era. Pearson. ISBN 9780205022441.
- Hicks, Daniel L.; Hicks, Joan Hamory; Maldonado, Beatriz (January 2016). "Women as policy makers and donors: female legislators and foreign aid". .
External links
- Policy institutes at Curlie
- "Policy Studies Organization". ipsonet.org.