Polish Underground State
Polish Underground State Polskie Państwo Podziemne | |||||||||
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1939–1945[1][2] | |||||||||
Motto: " Government in exile | |||||||||
Common languages | Polish | ||||||||
President of the Polish government-in-exile | |||||||||
• 1939–1945 | Władysław Raczkiewicz | ||||||||
Prime Minister of the Polish government-in-exile | |||||||||
• 1939–1940 (first) | Władysław Sikorski | ||||||||
• 1944-1945 (last) | Tomasz Arciszewski | ||||||||
Legislature |
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Historical era | World War II | ||||||||
23 April 1935 | |||||||||
1 September 1939 | |||||||||
• Provisional Government of National Unity established | 28 June 1945[1][2] | ||||||||
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Polish Underground State |
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The Polish Underground State (Polish: Polskie Państwo Podziemne, also known as the Polish Secret State)[a] was a single political and military entity formed by the union of resistance organizations in occupied Poland that were loyal to the Government of the Republic of Poland in exile in London. The first elements of the Underground State were established in the final days of the German and Soviet invasion of Poland, in late September 1939. The Underground State was perceived by supporters as a legal continuation of the pre-war Republic of Poland (and its institutions) that waged an armed struggle against the country's occupying powers: Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. The Underground State encompassed not only military resistance, one of the largest in the world,[b] but also civilian structures, such as justice, education, culture and social services.
Although the Underground State enjoyed broad support throughout much of the war, it was not supported or recognized by the far left (communists). The nationalists from the
Ultimately, hundreds of thousands of people were directly involved with various agencies of the Underground State (
During the
History
1939–1940: Formation
In many respects, the history of the Polish Underground State mirrors that of the Polish non-communist resistance in general. The Underground State traces its origins to the
Following the
Due to political differences among factions in the Polish exile government, and in particular, SZP ties to the Sanacja regime which dominated the Polish government since the mid-1920s, the SZP was reorganized into the Union of Armed Struggle (Związek Walki Zbrojnej, ZWZ) on 13 November 1939.[13][15] Karaszewicz-Tokarzewski supported that move, aiming to include parties marginalized by the Sanacja regime, and supported the formation of the Main Political Council (Główna Rada Polityczna, GRP).[11] Sikorski named General Kazimierz Sosnkowski the head of the ZWZ and Colonel Stefan Rowecki was appointed the commander of the ZWZ German occupation zone. Karaszewicz-Tokarzewski became the commander of the ZWZ Soviet zone but was arrested in March 1940 by the Soviets when attempting to cross the new German-Soviet border.[13] In June Sikorski appointed Rowecki as the commander of both zones.[13]
Given that the ZWZ focused on military aspects of the struggle, its civilian dimension was less clearly defined and developed more slowly—a situation exacerbated by the complex political discussions that were then unfolding between politicians in occupied Poland and the
The structures in occupied Poland maintained close communication with the government in exile, through radio communications and "hundreds, if not thousands" of couriers, such as Jan Karski.[22][23][24] One of the most significant developments of 1940 was the creation of the office of Government Delegation for Poland (Delegatura Rządu na Kraj), with Cyryl Ratajski (nominated on 3 December) as the first Delegate; this event marked the official beginning of the Underground State (Ratajski would be followed by Jan Piekałkiewicz, Jan Stanisław Jankowski and Stefan Korboński).[25][1] The post of the Delegate could be seen as equivalent to that of a Deputy Prime Minister (particularly since the legislation of 1944).[1][26] Unlike the GRP and PKP, which operated alongside the military structures but had no influence over them, the Delegation had budgetary control over the military.[27] The Delegation was to oversee the military and recreate the civilian administration.[27]
As early as 1940, the Underground State's civilian arm was actively supporting
1941–1943: Growth
By 1942, most of the differences between politicians in occupied Poland and those in exile had been positively settled.
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In August 1943 and March 1944, the Polish Underground State announced its long-term plan, which was partly designed to undercut the attractiveness of some of the communists' proposals.
The Underground State achieved its zenith of influence in early 1944.[36] In April, the Polish government in exile recognized the administrative structure of the Delegate's Office as the Temporary Governmental Administration.[41] This was when the Delegate officially became recognized as the Deputy Prime Minister, and the Council of Ministers at Home (Krajowa Rada Ministrów, KRM) was created.[26] The Underground State however declined sharply in the aftermath of the nationwide uprising, Operation Tempest, initiated in the spring of 1944.[42] In addition to the costly and eventually unsuccessful Warsaw Uprising part of the Operation Tempest, the hostile attitude of the Soviet Union and its puppet Polish government, the Polish Committee of National Liberation (Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego, PKWN) towards the non-communist resistance loyal to the Polish government in exile proved to be disastrous.[42] The Underground State assumed that the Polish resistance would aid the advancing Soviet forces, and AK commanders and representatives of the administrative authority would assume the role of legitimate hosts.[1] Instead, the Soviets commonly surrounded, disarmed and arrested the Underground's military authority members and its civilian representatives, instituting their own administrative structures instead.[43][44] In early July 1944, even as the AK resistance continued its struggle against the Germans, the Underground State was forced to order the AK and its administrative structure to remain in hiding from the Soviets, due to continued arrests and reprisals experienced by those who revealed themselves.[1]
1944–1945: Decline and dissolution
Events taking place in 1943 significantly weakened the Polish government in exile. A rift developed between Poland and the Soviet Union, an increasingly important ally for the West, particularly after the revelation of the
The communists refused to deal with the Underground State just like they refused to deal with the government in exile; its leaders and soldiers in "liberated" Polish territories were persecuted.[43] A number of prominent leaders of the Underground State, including the Government Delegate, Jan Stanisław Jankowski and the last AK Commander-in-Chief, General Leopold Okulicki, who decided to reveal themselves and upon the Soviet invitation begun open negotiations with the communist authorities, were arrested and sentenced by the Soviets in Moscow in the infamous Trial of the Sixteen (arrests were carried out in March 1945, and the trial itself took place in June that year).[1][43][53][54][55] On 27 June 1945 the Council of National Unity held its last session, issuing a 12-point declaration demanding that the Soviet army leave Poland and the repression of the non-communist political parties cease.[1][2] The Government Delegate's Office at Home, restructured after the arrests of its leadership and headed by the last Delegate, Stefan Korboński, disbanded on 1 July, after the creation in Moscow of the Provisional Government of National Unity (Tymczasowy Rząd Jedności Narodowej, TRJN) on 28 June 1945.[56][57] The disbanding of those structures marked the end of the Underground State.[1][2]
The TRJN was composed primarily of communist representatives from the PKWN, with a token representation of the opposition as a gesture towards the Western Allies.
The Underground State's military arm, Armia Krajowa, officially disbanded on 19 January 1945 to avoid armed conflict with the Soviets and civil war.
Political representation
The Underground State represented most, though not all, political factions of the
The most important groups that lacked representation in the Underground State included the communist (
Structure
Civilian
The government in exile, located first in France and later in the United Kingdom, with the
The main role of the civilian branch of the Underground State was to preserve the continuity of the Polish state as a whole, including its institutions. These institutions included
The departments can be seen as loosely corresponding to ministries. Three departments were dedicated to war-related issues: the Department for Elimination of the Consequences of War, the Department for Public Works and Reconstruction, and the Department for Information and the Press; the other departments mirrored pre-war Polish ministries (e.g., Department of Post Offices and Telegraphs, or Department of the Treasury).[74] The Delegate's Office was divided into departments,[75] 14 of which existed toward the end of the war; the full list included: the Presidential Department, the Department of Internal Affairs, Justice Department, Employment and Social Welfare Department, Agriculture Department, Treasury Department, Trade and Industry Department, Postal and Telegraph Services Department, the Department for Elimination of the Consequences of War, Transport Department, Information and the Press, Department of Public Works and Reconstruction, Department of Education and Culture and the Department of National Defence.[1]
On the geographical division level, the Delegation had local offices, dividing Polish territories into 16
Military
The military arm of the Polish Underground State consisted primarily of various branches of the Armia Krajowa (AK) and, until 1942, the
The Armia Krajowa's primary resistance operations were the sabotage of German activities, including transports headed for the Eastern Front in the Soviet Union.[63] The sabotage of German rail and road transports to the Eastern Front was so extensive it is estimated that one-eighth of all German transports to the Eastern Front were destroyed or significantly delayed due to AK's activities.[78]
The AK also fought several full-scale
Definition, historiography and remembrance
For decades, research on the Polish Underground State was restricted, largely because the communist
With the
The Underground State also became officially recognized by the Polish government, local authorities and the community, with most major cities in Poland erecting various memorials to the Underground State-affiliated resistance.
See also
- History of Poland (1939–1945)
- History of Poland (1945–1989)
- Home Army
- Kotwica
- Minor sabotage
- Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)
- Polish contribution to World War II
- Polish resistance movement in World War II
- Polish Resettlement Corps
Notes
- a ^ The more widely used term Polish Underground State was first used on 13 January 1944 by the official underground publication of the Polish underground authorities, the Biuletyn Informacyjny.[98] Polish Secret State (Polish: Tajne państwo) was a term used by Jan Karski in his book Story of a Secret State, written and first published in the second half of 1944 in the United States.
- b French resistance was smaller, numbering around 10,000 people in 1942, and swelling to 200,000 by 1944.[99]
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Grzegorz Ostasz, The Polish Government-in-Exile's Home Delegature. Article on the pages of the London Branch of the Polish Home Army Ex-Servicemen Association. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
- ^ a b c Garliński, p. 253
- ISBN 978-83-02-05500-3., p. 25.
- ^ S2CID 159844616., p.221
- ^ Salmonowicz, pp. 26–27.
- ^ Salmonowicz, p. 27.
- ^ Salmonowicz, pp. 30–31.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7146-8444-4.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8214-1892-5.
- ISBN 978-0-313-26007-0.
- ^ a b c d Garliński, p. 222
- ISBN 978-0-415-26033-6.
- ^ a b c d e Garliński, p. 223
- ISBN 978-0-521-48385-8.
- ^ Salmonowicz, pp. 30–33.
- ^ a b Salmonowicz, pp. 33–36.
- ^ Salmonowicz, p. 39.
- ISBN 978-0-8214-1892-5.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8214-1892-5.
- ^ Garliński, p. 224
- ISBN 978-0-521-27501-9.
- ISBN 978-1-84603-365-0.
- ISBN 978-1-84885-443-7.
- ISBN 978-1-86064-546-4.
- ^ a b c Salmonowicz, p. 37.
- ^ a b c d Garliński, p. 234
- ^ a b Garliński, pp. 225–226
- ^ a b Salmonowicz, p. 42.
- ^ a b Salmonowicz, p. 44.
- ^ a b Salmonowicz, p. 46.
- ^ Salmonowicz, pp. 45–46.
- ^ Salmonowicz, pp. 44–45.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-520-06219-1.
- ^ Salmonowicz, p. 45
- ^ Marek Ney-Krwawicz, The Polish Underground State and The Home Army (1939–45). Translated from Polish by Antoni Bohdanowicz. Article on the pages of the London Branch of the Polish Home Army Ex-Servicemen Association. Retrieved 14 March 2008.
- ^ a b c d Salmonowicz, p. 47.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-88254-517-2. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
- ISBN 978-83-01-03732-1.
- ^ a b c Garliński, p. 246
- ^ ISBN 978-0-520-06219-1.
- ^ Salmonowicz, p. 48.
- ^ a b Salmonowicz, p. 48–49.
- ^ a b c d Rzeczpospolita, 02.10.04 Nr 232, Wielkie polowanie: Prześladowania akowców w Polsce Ludowej Archived 6 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine (Great hunt: the persecutions of AK soldiers in the People's Republic of Poland). Retrieved 7 June 2006.
- ^ a b Garliński, p. 245
- ISBN 978-0-521-48385-8.
- ^ Garliński, p. 243
- ISBN 978-0-14-303604-3.
- ISBN 978-0-300-11988-6.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-313-26007-0.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-48385-8.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-313-30571-9. Retrieved 8 April 2011.
- ISBN 978-0-415-34358-9.
- ^ a b Garliński, p. 251
- ^ Garliński, p. 252
- ISBN 978-0-375-72625-5.
- ^ a b "Polskie Państwo Podziemne" (in Polish). Encyklopedia PWN. Archived from the original on 3 May 2012. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
- ^ "Delegatura Rządu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej na Kraje" (in Polish). Encyklopedia PWN. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
- ISBN 978-0-8214-1892-5.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-313-26007-0.
- ISBN 978-0-14-303775-0.
- ISBN 978-0-8153-4058-4.
- ^ Garliński, p. 250
- ^ a b c d Bohdan Kwiatkowski, Sabotaż i dywersja, Bellona, London 1949, vol.1, p.21; as cited by Marek Ney-Krwawicz, The Polish Underground State and The Home Army (1939–45). Translated from Polish by Antoni Bohdanowicz. Article on the pages of the London Branch of the Polish Home Army Ex-Servicemen Association. Retrieved 14 March 2008.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-57607-800-6.
- ^ Salmonowicz, pp. 51–53.
- ^ a b Garliński, p. 235
- ^ Salmonowicz, pp. 55–56.
- ^ Garliński, p. 238
- ^ Salmonowicz, p. 64.
- ^ a b Garliński, p. 236
- ^ Salmonowicz, pp. 17–18.
- ^ Salmonowicz, p. 76.
- ^ a b Garliński, p. 220
- ^ Salmonowicz, p. 75.
- ^ Garliński, p. 226
- ^ Salmonowicz, p. 91.
- ^ Salmonowicz, p. 96.
- ^ Eastern Europe in World War II: October 1939 – May 1945. Lecture notes of prof Anna M. Cienciala. Retrieved 21 December 2006.
- ISBN 0-88029-394-2.
- ^ Kwan Yuk Pan, "Polish veterans to take pride of place in victory parade", Financial Times, 5 July 2005. Retrieved 31 March 2006.
- ISBN 978-963-9776-63-0.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-231-12819-3. Retrieved 8 April 2011.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-300-10980-1.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8014-8542-8.
- ISBN 978-0-8133-3935-1.
- ^ a b Salmonowicz, pp.6–7.
- ISBN 978-3-86583-240-5.
- ^ a b Salmonowicz, p. 8.
- ^ Salmonowicz, pp. 10–11.
- ^ Salmonowicz, p. 10.
- ^ Salmonowicz, pp. 9–10.
- ^ Garliński, pp. 219–220
- ISBN 978-0-8101-2001-3.
- ^ a b Salmonowicz, pp. 18–19.
- ^ a b Cichocka, Agnieszka (26 September 2007). "Poznański pomnik Polskiego Państwa Podziemnego". Wiadomosci24.pl. Retrieved 20 December 2011.
- ^ "M.P. 1998 nr 30 poz. 414". Internetowy System Aktów Prawnych. Retrieved 20 December 2011.
- ISBN 978-83-88794-68-1.
- ISBN 978-1-4022-0045-8. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
Further reading
- Jan Karski (2001). Story of a Secret State. Simon Publications. ISBN 978-1-931541-39-8.
- Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed: Poland and the Poles in the Second World War. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-06816-2.
- Stefan Korboński; Francis Bauer Czarnomski; Zofia Korbonski (2004). Fighting Warsaw: The Story of the Polish Underground State, 1939–1945. Hippocrene Books. ISBN 978-0-7818-1035-7.
- ISBN 978-0-7818-1302-0.
- Richard C. Lukas (2004). Forgotten Survivors: Polish Christians Remember the Nazi Occupation. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7818-0242-0.
- Jan Nowak (1982). Courier from Warsaw. Wayne State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8143-1725-9.
- Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski (2011). The Secret Army: The Memoirs of General Bór-Komorowski. Pen & Sword Books Limited. ISBN 978-1-84832-595-1.
External links