Polish culture during World War II

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Polish culture during

cultural heritage.[1][2] Policies aimed at cultural genocide resulted in the deaths of thousands of scholars and artists, and the theft and destruction of innumerable cultural artifacts.[3] ''The maltreatment of the Poles was one of many ways in which the Nazi and Soviet regimes had grown to resemble one another", wrote British historian Niall Ferguson.[4]

The occupiers looted and destroyed much of Poland's cultural and historical heritage while persecuting and murdering members of the Polish cultural elite. Most Polish schools were closed, and those that remained open saw their curricula altered significantly.

Nevertheless, underground organizations and individuals—in particular the Polish Underground State—saved much of Poland's most valuable cultural treasures, and worked to salvage as many cultural institutions and artifacts as possible. The Catholic Church and wealthy individuals contributed to the survival of some artists and their works. Despite severe retribution by the Nazis and Soviets, Polish underground cultural activities, including publications, concerts, live theater, education, and academic research, continued throughout the war.

Background

Main articles:
Invasion of Poland (1939), History of Poland (1939–1945), and Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)

In 1795 Poland ceased to exist as a sovereign nation and throughout the 19th century remained partitioned by degrees between Prussian, Austrian and Russian empires. Not until the end of World War I was independence restored and the nation reunited, although the drawing of boundary lines was, of necessity, a contentious issue. Independent Poland lasted for only 21 years before it was again attacked and divided among foreign powers.

On 1 September 1939,

winning it back in mid-1944. Over the course of the war, Poland lost over 20% of its pre-war population amid an occupation that marked the end of the Second Polish Republic.[6]

Destruction of Polish culture

German occupation

Policy

Germany's policy toward the Polish nation and its culture evolved during the course of the war. Many German officials and military officers were initially not given any clear guidelines on the treatment of Polish cultural institutions, but this quickly changed.

Germanized, enslaved or eradicated,[9] depending on whether they lived in the territories directly annexed into the German state or in the General Government.[7]

Much of the German policy on Polish culture was formulated during a meeting between the governor of the General Government,

Third Reich and should eventually be addressed only by megaphone.[7] During the following weeks Polish schools beyond middle vocational levels were closed, as were theaters and many other cultural institutions. The only Polish-language newspaper published in occupied Poland was also closed, and the arrests of Polish intellectuals began.[7]

In March 1940, all cultural activities came under the control of the General Government's Department of People's Education and Propaganda (Abteilung für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda), whose name was changed a year later to the "Chief Propaganda Department" (Hauptabteilung Propaganda).

pornographic nature, were however an exception—those were to be popularized to appease the population and to show the world the "real" Polish culture as well as to create the impression that Germany was not preventing Poles from expressing themselves.[11] German propaganda specialists invited critics from neutral countries to specially organized "Polish" performances that were specifically designed to be boring or pornographic, and presented them as typical Polish cultural activities.[12] Polish-German cooperation in cultural matters, such as joint public performances, was strictly prohibited.[13] Meanwhile, a compulsory registration scheme for writers and artists was introduced in August 1940.[7] Then, in October, the printing of new Polish-language books was prohibited; existing titles were censored, and often confiscated and withdrawn.[7]

In 1941, German policy evolved further, calling for the complete destruction of the Polish people, whom the Nazis regarded as "subhumans" (Untermenschen). Within ten to twenty years, the Polish territories under German occupation were to be entirely cleared of ethnic Poles and settled by German colonists.[9][14] The policy was relaxed somewhat in the final years of occupation (1943–44), in view of German military defeats and the approaching

Chopin museum, which emphasized the composer's invented German roots.[16] Restrictions on education, theater and music performances were eased.[16]

Given that the

multicultural state,[17] German policies and propaganda also sought to create and encourage conflicts between ethnic groups, fueling tension between Poles and Jews, and between Poles and Ukrainians.[18][19] In Łódź, the Germans forced Jews to help destroy a monument to a Polish hero, Tadeusz Kościuszko, and filmed them committing the act. Soon afterward, the Germans set fire to a Jewish synagogue and filmed Polish bystanders, portraying them in propaganda releases as a "vengeful mob."[19] This divisive policy was reflected in the Germans' decision to destroy Polish education, while at the same time, showing relative tolerance toward the Ukrainian school system.[20] As the high-ranking Nazi official Erich Koch explained, "We must do everything possible so that when a Pole meets a Ukrainian, he will be willing to kill the Ukrainian and conversely, the Ukrainian will be willing to kill the Pole."[21]

Plunder

Zachęta Museum in Warsaw
, summer 1944
Further information:
Nazi plunder in Poland

In 1939, as the occupation regime was being established, the Nazis confiscated Polish state property and much private property.

Bacciarelli.[23][25] Most of the important art pieces had been "secured" by the Nazis within six months of September 1939; by the end of 1942, German officials estimated that "over 90%" of the art previously in Poland was in their possession.[23] Some art was shipped to German museums, such as the planned Führermuseum in Linz, while other art became the private property of Nazi officials.[23] Over 516,000 individual art pieces were taken, including 2,800 paintings by European painters; 11,000 works by Polish painters; 1,400 sculptures, 75,000 manuscripts, 25,000 maps, and 90,000 books (including over 20,000 printed before 1800); as well as hundreds of thousands of other objects of artistic and historic value.[24] Even exotic animals were taken from the zoos.[26]

Destruction

See also:
List of Polish cities damaged in World War II

Many places of learning and culture—universities, schools, libraries, museums, theaters and cinemas—were either closed or designated as "Nur für Deutsche" (For Germans Only). Twenty-five museums and a host of other institutions were destroyed during the war.[24] According to one estimate, by war's end 43% of the infrastructure of Poland's educational and research institutions and 14% of its museums had been destroyed.[27] According to another, only 105 of pre-war Poland's 175 museums survived the war, and just 33 of these institutions were able to reopen.[28] Of pre-war Poland's 603 scientific institutions, about half were totally destroyed, and only a few survived the war relatively intact.[29]

Portrait of a Young Man, by Raphael, ca. 1514. Possibly a self-portrait,[30] and if so, the most valuable single piece of art looted by the Nazis in Poland.[25] Formerly in the collection of the Czartoryski Museum in Kraków, its whereabouts remain unknown.

Many university professors, as well as teachers, lawyers, artists, writers, priests and other members of the Polish

massacre of Lwów professors.[22][32] During World War II Poland lost 39% to 45% of its physicians and dentists, 26% to 57% of its lawyers, 15% to 30% of its teachers, 30% to 40% of its scientists and university professors, and 18% to 28% of its clergy.[2][33] The Jewish intelligentsia was exterminated altogether. The reasoning behind this policy was clearly articulated by a Nazi gauleiter: "In my district, [any Pole who] shows signs of intelligence will be shot."[22]

As part of their program to suppress Polish culture, the German Nazis attempted to destroy

Roman Catholic Church.[34][35] In some parts of occupied Poland, Poles were restricted, or even forbidden, from attending religious services. At the same time, church property was confiscated, prohibitions were placed on using the Polish language in religious services, organizations affiliated with the Catholic Church were abolished, and it was forbidden to perform certain religious songs—or to read passages of the Bible—in public. The worst conditions were found in the Reichsgau Wartheland, which the Nazis treated as a laboratory for their anti-religious policies.[34][35][36] Polish clergy and religious leaders figured prominently among portions of the intelligentsia that were targeted for extermination.[34]

To forestall the rise of a new generation of educated Poles, German officials decreed that the schooling of Polish children would be limited to a few years of elementary education.

Bezirk Bialystok, Reichskommissariat Ostland and Reichskommissariat Ukraine) many primary schools were closed, and most education was conducted in non-Polish languages such as Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Lithuanian.[38] In the Bezirk Bialystok region, for example, 86% of the schools that had existed before the war were closed down during the first two years of German occupation, and by the end of the following year that figure had increased to 93%.[38]

Chopin, by Mieroszewski. Destroyed in Warsaw
, September 1939.

The state of Polish primary schools was somewhat better in the General Government,[38] though by the end of 1940, only 30% of prewar schools were operational, and only 28% of prewar Polish children attended them.[41] A German police memorandum of August 1943 described the situation as follows:

Pupils sit crammed together without necessary materials, and often without skilled teaching staff. Moreover, the Polish schools are closed during at least five months out of the ten months of the school year due to lack of coal or other fuel. Of twenty-thirty spacious school buildings which Kraków had before 1939, today the worst two buildings are used ... Every day, pupils have to study in several shifts. Under such circumstances, the school day, which normally lasts five hours, is reduced to one hour.[38]

Burned ruins of the Great Synagogue of Białystok, after it was torched down by the Germans with approximately 2000 Jews inside, 1941.

In the General Government, the remaining schools were subjugated to the German educational system, and the number and competence of their Polish staff was steadily scaled down.[39] All universities and most secondary schools were closed, if not immediately after the invasion, then by mid-1940.[9][39][42] By late 1940, no official Polish educational institutions more advanced than a vocational school remained in operation, and they offered nothing beyond the elementary trade and technical training required for the Nazi economy.[38][41] Primary schooling was to last for seven years, but the classes in the final two years of the program were to be limited to meeting one day per week.[41] There was no money for heating the schools in winter.[43] Classes and schools were to be merged, Polish teachers dismissed, and the resulting savings used to sponsor the creation of schools for children of the German minority or to create barracks for German troops.[41][43] No new Polish teachers were to be trained.[41] The educational curriculum was censored; subjects such as literature, history and geography were removed.[38][39][44] Old textbooks were confiscated and school libraries were closed.[38][44] The new educational aims for Poles included convincing them that their national fate was hopeless and teaching them to be submissive and respectful to Germans. This was accomplished through deliberate tactics such as police raids on schools, police inspections of student belongings, mass arrests of students and teachers, and the use of students as forced laborers, often by transporting them to Germany as seasonal workers.[38]

Queen Bona's 16th century royal casket, looted and destroyed by the Germans in 1939

The Germans were especially active in the destruction of Jewish culture in Poland; nearly all of the wooden synagogues there were destroyed.[45] Moreover, the sale of Jewish literature was banned throughout Poland.[46]

Polish literature faced a similar fate in territories annexed by Germany, where the sale of Polish books was forbidden.[46] The public destruction of Polish books was not limited to those seized from libraries, but also included those books that were confiscated from private homes.[47] The last Polish book titles not already proscribed were withdrawn in 1943; even Polish prayer books were confiscated.[48] Soon after the occupation began, most libraries were closed; in Kraków, about 80% of the libraries were closed immediately, while the remainder saw their collections decimated by censors.[10] The occupying powers destroyed Polish book collections, including the Sejm and Senate Library, the Przedziecki Estate Library, the Zamoyski Estate Library, the Central Military Library, and the Rapperswil Collection.[22][49] In 1941, the last remaining Polish public library in the German-occupied territories was closed in Warsaw.[48] During the war, Warsaw libraries lost about a million volumes, or 30% of their collections.[50] More than 80% of these losses were the direct result of purges rather than wartime conflict.[51] Overall, it is estimated that about 10 million volumes from state-owned libraries and institutions perished during the war.[27]

planned to level entire cities.[2][37][48]

Censorship and propaganda

Sukiennice Cloth Hall
: "How German artists see the General Government"

The Germans prohibited publication of any regular Polish-language book, literary study or scholarly paper.[22][48] In 1940, several German-controlled printing houses began operating in occupied Poland, publishing items such as Polish-German dictionaries and antisemitic and anticommunist novels.[54]

banned authors included such Polish authors as Adam Mickiewicz, Juliusz Słowacki, Stanisław Wyspiański, Bolesław Prus, Stefan Żeromski, Józef Ignacy Kraszewski, Władysław Reymont, Stanisław Wyspiański, Julian Tuwim, Kornel Makuszyński, Leopold Staff, Eliza Orzeszkowa and Maria Konopnicka.[50] Mere possession of such books was illegal and punishable by imprisonment. Door-to-door sale of books was banned,[10] and bookstores—which required a license to operate[10]—were either emptied out or closed.[46]

Wehrmacht soldiers destroying Polish government insignia in Gdynia, September 1939

Poles were forbidden, under penalty of death, to own

eventual fate.[59]

Music was the least restricted of cultural activities, probably because Hans Frank regarded himself as a fan of serious music. In time, he ordered the creation of the Orchestra and Symphony of the General Government in its capital, Kraków.[10] Numerous musical performances were permitted in cafes and churches,[10] and the Polish underground chose to boycott only the propagandist operas.[10] Visual artists, including painters and sculptors, were compelled to register with the German government; but their work was generally tolerated by the underground unless it conveyed propagandist themes.[10] Shuttered museums were replaced by occasional art exhibitions that frequently conveyed propagandist themes.[10]

The development of

antisemitic, and pro-German attitudes.[18]

Soviet occupation

See also: Soviet repressions of Polish citizens (1939–1946)

After the

annexed the eastern parts ("Kresy") of the Second Polish Republic, comprising 201,015 square kilometres (77,612 sq mi) and a population of 13.299 million.[60] Hitler and Stalin shared the goal of obliterating Poland's political and cultural life, so that Poland would, according to historian Niall Ferguson, "cease to exist not merely as a place, but also as an idea".[4]

Partition of Poland, 1939–41, pursuant to the Nazi–Soviet Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact

The Soviet authorities regarded service to the prewar Polish state as a "crime against revolution"[61] and "counter-revolutionary activity"[62] and arrested many members of the Polish intelligentsia, politicians, civil servants and academics, as well as ordinary persons suspected of posing a threat to Soviet rule. More than a million Polish citizens were deported to Siberia,[63][64] many to Gulag concentration camps, for years or decades. Others died, including over 20,000 military officers who perished in the Katyn massacres.[65]

The Soviets quickly

Red Cross workers, refugees, smugglers, priests and members of religious congregations, the nobility, landowners, wealthy merchants, bankers, industrialists, and hotel and restaurant owners. Stalin, like Hitler, worked to eliminate Polish society.[70]

The Soviet authorities sought to remove all traces of the Polish history of the area now under their control.

Lwów University, were closed, then reopened, mostly with new Soviet directors.[65] Soviet Communist ideology became paramount in all teaching. Polish literature and language studies were dissolved by the Soviet authorities, and the Polish language was replaced with Russian or Ukrainian. Polish-language books were burned even in primary schools.[65] Polish teachers were not allowed in the schools, and many were arrested. Classes were held in Belarusian, Lithuanian and Ukrainian, with a new pro-Soviet curriculum.[38] As Polish-Canadian historian Piotr Wróbel noted, citing British historians M. R. D. Foot and I. C. B. Dear, majority of scholars believe that "In the Soviet occupation zone, conditions were only marginally less harsh than under the Germans."[2] In September 1939, many Polish Jews had fled east; after some months of living under Soviet rule, some of them wanted to return to the German zone of occupied Poland.[71]

Lwów
, September 1940, excoriating Polish "enemies of the state"—businessmen, army officers, aristocrats

All publications and media were subjected to censorship.[67] The Soviets sought to recruit Polish left-wing intellectuals who were willing to cooperate.[67][72][73] Soon after the Soviet invasion, the Writers' Association of Soviet Ukraine created a local chapter in Lwów; there was a Polish-language theater and radio station.[72] Polish cultural activities in Minsk and Vilnius were less organized.[72] These activities were strictly controlled by the Soviet authorities, which saw to it that these activities portrayed the new Soviet regime in a positive light and vilified the former Polish government.[72]

The Soviet propaganda-motivated support for Polish-language cultural activities, however, clashed with the official policy of

People's Republic of Poland.[72][73]

Many Polish writers collaborated with the Soviets, writing pro-Soviet propaganda.[72][73] They included Jerzy Borejsza, Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński, Kazimierz Brandys, Janina Broniewska, Jan Brzoza, Teodor Bujnicki, Leon Chwistek, Zuzanna Ginczanka, Halina Górska, Mieczysław Jastrun, Stefan Jędrychowski, Stanisław Jerzy Lec, Tadeusz Łopalewski, Juliusz Kleiner, Jan Kott, Jalu Kurek, Karol Kuryluk, Leopold Lewin, Anatol Mikułko, Jerzy Pański, Leon Pasternak, Julian Przyboś, Jerzy Putrament, Jerzy Rawicz, Adolf Rudnicki, Włodzimierz Słobodnik, Włodzimierz Sokorski, Elżbieta Szemplińska, Anatol Stern, Julian Stryjkowski, Lucjan Szenwald, Leopold Tyrmand, Wanda Wasilewska, Stanisław Wasilewski, Adam Ważyk, Aleksander Weintraub and Bruno Winawer.[72][73]

Other Polish writers, however, rejected the Soviet persuasions and instead published underground: Jadwiga Czechowiczówna, Jerzy Hordyński, Jadwiga Gamska-Łempicka, Herminia Naglerowa, Beata Obertyńska, Ostap Ortwin, Tadeusz Peiper, Teodor Parnicki, Juliusz Petry.[72][73] Some writers, such as Władysław Broniewski, after collaborating with the Soviets for a few months, joined the anti-Soviet opposition.[72][73][76] Similarly, Aleksander Wat, initially sympathetic to communism, was arrested by the Soviet NKVD secret police and exiled to Kazakhstan.[73]

Underground culture

Patrons

bibuła) of works by Winston Churchill and Arkady Fiedler and of 10,000 copies of a Polish primary-school primer and commissioned artists to create resistance artwork (which was then disseminated by Operation N and like activities).[49] Also occasionally sponsored were secret art exhibitions, theater performances and concerts.[49]

Other important patrons of Polish culture included the

Janusz Radziwiłł).[49] Some private publishers, including Stefan Kamieński, Zbigniew Mitzner and the Ossolineum publishing house, paid writers for books that would be delivered after the war.[78]

Education

Further information: Education in Poland during World War II

In response to the German closure and censorship of Polish schools, resistance among teachers led almost immediately to the creation of

ghettos; there was, however, underground Jewish education in the ghettos, often organized with support from Polish organizations like TON.[87] Students at the underground schools were often also members of the Polish resistance.[88]

Polish Home Army medal for service in Operation Tempest

In

Warsaw Politechnic under occupation educated 3,000 students, issuing 186 engineering degrees, 18 doctoral ones and 16 habilitations.[90] Jagiellonian University issued 468 masters and 62 doctoral degrees, employed over 100 professors and teachers, and served more than 1,000 students per year.[91] Throughout Poland, many other universities and institutions of higher education (of music, theater, arts, and others) continued their classes throughout the war.[92]
Even some academic research was carried out (for example, by Władysław Tatarkiewicz, a leading Polish philosopher, and Zenon Klemensiewicz, a linguist).[48][93] Nearly 1,000 Polish scientists received funds from the Underground State, enabling them to continue their research.[94]

The German attitude to underground education varied depending on whether it took place in the General Government or the annexed territories. The Germans had almost certainly realized the full scale of the Polish underground education system by about 1943 but lacked the manpower to put an end to it, probably prioritizing resources to dealing with the armed resistance.

concentration camp.[95]

Print

Further information: Polish literature during World War II
Der Klabautermann, 3 January 1943—an Operation N periodical for Germans. Left: Death. Center: Hitler. Right: Himmler.

There were over 1,000 underground newspapers;

Armia Krajowa and Rzeczpospolita of the Government Delegation for Poland. In addition to publication of news (from intercepted Western radio transmissions), there were hundreds of underground publications dedicated to politics, economics, education, and literature (for example, Sztuka i Naród).[16][99] The highest recorded publication volume was an issue of Biuletyn Informacyjny printed in 43,000 copies; average volume of larger publication was 1,000–5,000 copies.[99] The Polish underground also published booklets and leaflets from imaginary anti-Nazi German organizations aimed at spreading disinformation and lowering morale among the Germans.[100] Books were also sometimes printed.[16] Other items were also printed, such as patriotic posters or fake German administration posters, ordering the Germans to evacuate Poland or telling Poles to register household cats.[100]

The two largest underground publishers were the

Action N).[104] The majority of Polish underground presses were located in occupied Warsaw; until the Warsaw Uprising in the summer of 1944 the Germans found over 16 underground printing presses (whose crews were usually executed or sent to concentration camps).[105] The second largest center for Polish underground publishing was Kraków.[101] There, writers and editors faced similar dangers: for example, almost the entire editorial staff of the underground satirical paper Na Ucho was arrested, and its chief editors were executed in Kraków on 27 May 1944. (Na Ucho was the longest published Polish underground paper devoted to satire; 20 issues were published starting in October 1943.)[104] The underground press was supported by a large number of activists; in addition to the crews manning the printing presses, scores of underground couriers distributed the publications. According to some statistics, these couriers were among the underground members most frequently arrested by the Germans.[104]

Under German occupation, the professions of Polish journalists and writers were virtually eliminated, as they had little opportunity to publish their work. The Underground State's Department of Culture sponsored various initiatives and individuals, enabling them to continue their work and aiding in their publication.

Zofia Górska (Romanowiczowa), Tadeusz Hołuj, Kazimierz Andrzej Jaworski and Marian Kubicki).[107] Many writers did not survive the war, among them Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński, Wacław Berent, Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński, Tadeusz Gajcy, Zuzanna Ginczanka, Juliusz Kaden-Bandrowski, Stefan Kiedrzyński, Janusz Korczak, Halina Krahelska, Tadeusz Hollender, Witold Hulewicz, Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski, Włodzimierz Pietrzak, Leon Pomirowski, Kazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer and Bruno Schulz.[106]

Visual arts and music

Polish Underground State Information Bulletin, 15 July 1943, reports the death of Gen. Sikorski and orders a national day of mourning

With the censorship of Polish theater (and the virtual end of the Polish radio and film industry),

war prisoners.[112]

Polish music, including orchestras, also went underground.

puppet shows were staged.[16] Jewish musicians (e.g. Władysław Szpilman) and artists likewise performed in ghettos and even in concentration camps.[114] Although many of them died, some survived abroad, like Alexandre Tansman in the United States, and Eddie Rosner and Henryk Wars
in the Soviet Union.

Visual arts were practiced underground as well. Cafes, restaurants and private homes were turned into galleries or museums; some were closed, with their owners, staff and patrons harassed, arrested or even executed.

Action N Operation of Armia Krajowa's Bureau of Information and Propaganda. In 1944 three giant (6 m, or 20 ft) puppets, caricatures of Hitler and Benito Mussolini, were successfully displayed in public places in Warsaw.[115] Some artists recorded life and death in occupied Poland; despite German bans on Poles using cameras, photographs and even films were taken.[108] Although it was impossible to operate an underground radio station, underground auditions were recorded and introduced into German radios or loudspeaker systems.[108] Underground postage stamps were designed and issued.[115] Since the Germans also banned Polish sport activities, underground sport clubs were created; underground football matches and even tournaments were organized in Warsaw, Kraków and Poznań, although these were usually dispersed by the Germans.[115] All of these activities were supported by the Underground State's Department of Culture.[113]

Warsaw Uprising

Polish Radio broadcast in English.
An English-language news program describing the daily fighting during the Warsaw Uprising, broadcast by Polish insurgents radio station Błyskawica.
Problems playing this file? See media help.

During the Warsaw Uprising (August–October 1944), people in Polish-controlled territory endeavored to recreate the former day-to-day life of their free country. Cultural life was vibrant among both soldiers and the civilian population, with theaters, cinemas, post offices, newspapers and similar activities available.[118] The 10th Underground Tournament of Poetry was held during the Uprising, with prizes being weaponry (most of the Polish poets of the younger generation were also members of the resistance).[107] Headed by Antoni Bohdziewicz, the Home Army's Bureau of Information and Propaganda even created three newsreels and over 30,000 metres (98,425 ft) of film documenting the struggle.[119] Eugeniusz Lokajski took some 1,000 photographs before he died;[120] Sylwester Braun some 3,000, of which 1,500 survive;[121] Jerzy Tomaszewski some 1,000, of which 600 survived.[122]

Culture in exile

Polish artists also worked abroad, outside of

Czerwone maki na Monte Cassino (The Red Poppies on Monte Cassino), composed by Feliks Konarski and Alfred Schultz in 1944.[125] There were also Polish theaters in exile in both the East and the West.[112][126] Several Polish painters, mostly soldiers of the Polish II Corps, kept working throughout the war, including Tadeusz Piotr Potworowski, Adam Kossowski, Marian Kratochwil, Bolesław Leitgeber and Stefan Knapp.[127]

Influence on postwar culture

Rozstrzelanie V (Execution by Firing Squad, V) (1949) by Andrzej Wróblewski, set in German-occupied Poland
See also:
Cultural representations of the Warsaw Uprising

The wartime attempts to destroy Polish culture may have strengthened it instead.

Poland's postwar territorial changes, and postwar migrations left Poland without its historic ethnic minorities. The multicultural nation was no more.[130]

The experience of World War II placed its stamp on a

creation of a communist Poland.[131][132][133]

Over the years, nearly three-quarters of the Polish people have emphasized the importance of World War II to the Polish national identity.

Stakes Larger than Life); music (Powstanie Warszawskie); and even comic books—all of these diverse works have reflected those times. Polish historian Tomasz Szarota wrote in 1996:

Educational and training programs place special emphasis on the World War II period and on the occupation. Events and individuals connected with the war are ubiquitous on TV, on radio and in the print media. The theme remains an important element in literature and learning, in film, theater and the fine arts. Not to mention that politicians constantly make use of it. Probably no other country marks anniversaries related to the events of World War II so often or so solemnly.[134]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Olsak-Glass, Judith (January 1999). "Review of Piotrowski's Poland's Holocaust". Sarmatian Review. Retrieved January 24, 2008. The prisons, ghettos, internment, transit, labor and extermination camps, roundups, mass deportations, public executions, mobile killing units, death marches, deprivation, hunger, disease, and exposure all testify to the 'inhuman policies of both Hitler and Stalin' and 'were clearly aimed at the total extermination of Polish citizens, both Jews and Christians. Both regimes endorsed a systematic program of genocide.'
  2. ^
    OCLC 44068966
    .
  3. ^ Schabas 2000.
  4. ^ a b Ferguson 2006, p. 423
  5. ^ Raack 1995, p. 58
  6. ^ Piotrowski 1997, p. 295
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i Madajczyk 1970, pp. 127–129
  8. ^ Madajczyk, Czesław (1980). "Die Besatzungssysteme der Achsenmächte: Versuch einer komparatistischen Analyse". Studia Historiae Oeconomicae (in German). 14.
  9. ^ a b c d e Redzik, Adam (September 30 – October 6, 2004). Polish Universities During the Second World War (PDF). Encuentros de Historia Comparada Hispano-Polaca / Spotkania poświęcone historii porównawczej hiszpańsko-polskiej (Fourth Meeting of Comparative Hispano-Polish History). Retrieved May 27, 2009.
  10. ^
    ISSN 1427-7476
    .
  11. ^ a b c d Madajczyk 1970, p. 130
  12. ^ Madajczyk 1970, p. 137
  13. ^ Madajczyk 1970, pp. 130–132.
  14. ISBN 9042006889 – via Google Books. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help
    )
  15. ^ Madajczyk 1970, pp. 133–134
  16. ^ a b c d e f g Madajczyk 1970, pp. 132–133
  17. ^ Davies 2005, p.299
  18. ^ a b c Madajczyk 1970, pp. 169–170
  19. ^ a b Madajczyk 1970, pp. 171–173
  20. ^ Madajczyk 1970, pp. 162–163
  21. ^ Kiriczuk, Jurij (April 23, 2003). "Jak za Jaremy i Krzywonosa". Gazeta Wyborcza (in Polish). Retrieved May 10, 2009.
  22. ^ a b c d e f Knuth & English 2003, pp. 86–89
  23. ^ a b c d e Madajczyk 1970, p. 122.
  24. ^ a b c "Rewindykacja dóbr kultury". Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs (in Polish). Archived from the original on August 21, 2007. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
  25. ^
    Tygodnik Przegląd (in Polish). No. 40. Archived from the original on November 3, 2005.{{cite magazine}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link
    )
  26. ^ Kisling 2001, pp. 122–123.
  27. ^ a b Salmonowicz 1994, p. 229
  28. ^ a b c Madajczyk 1970, p. 123
  29. ^ Madajczyk 1970, p. 127
  30. ^ Grabski, Józef (2003). "Zaginiony "Portret młodzieńca" Rafaela ze zbiorów XX. Czartoryskich w Krakowie. Ze studiów nad typologią portretu renesansowego". In Dudzik, Sebastian; Żuchowski, Tadeusz J. (eds.). Rafael i jego spadkobiercy. Portret klasyczny w sztuce nowożytnej Europy (in Polish). Vol. 4. pp. 221–261. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  31. ^ Burek, Edward, ed. (2000). "Sonderaktion Krakau". Encyklopedia Krakowa (in Polish). Kraków: PWM.
  32. OCLC 29278609
    .
  33. ^ Sieradzki, Sławomir (September 21, 2003). "Niemiecki koń trojański". Wprost (in Polish). No. 38. Retrieved May 10, 2009.
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References

Further reading

External links

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