Political history of Mysore and Coorg (1565–1760)

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

peninsular India
showing shifting boundaries

The

Haidar Ali
in 1761 introduced a new period.

At the height of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Mysore and Coorg region was ruled by diverse

subahs
(or provinces).

Mysore's expansions had been based on unstable alliances. When the alliances began to unravel, as they did during the next half-century, decay set in, presided over by politically and militarily inept kings. The Mughal governor, Nawab of Arcot, in a display of the still remaining reach of a

Haidar Ali, seized power in Mysore. Under him, and in the decades following, Mysore was to expand again. It was to match all of southern India in size, and to pose the last serious threat to the new rising power on the subcontinent, the English East India Company
.

A common feature of all large regimes in the region during the period 1565–1760 is increased military fiscalism. This mode of creating income for the state consisted of extraction of tribute payments from local chiefs under threat of military action. It differed both from the more segmentary modes of preceding regimes and the more absolutist modes of succeeding ones—the latter achieved through direct tax collection from citizens. Another common feature of these regimes is the fragmentary historiography devoted to them, making broad generalizations difficult.

Poligars of Vijayanagara, 1565–1635

Ruins of a temple, entirely made of stone. The four-storied temple ruins rise behind two free-standing pillared structures, one of which hides the entrance to the temple. Sculptures of human forms are seen on the upper stories. Grass grows on various exposed surfaces of the ruins. A pathway, paved with stone slabs, fringes the visible perimeter of the temple.
An 1856 photograph by John Alexander Greenlaw (1818–1870) of entrance to the Krishna temple at Hampi, among the ruins of the Vijayanagara Empire, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[a]

On 23 January 1565 the last

Bhima, 100 miles (160 km) to the north of the imperial capital, Vijayanagara (Map 2).[3] The invaders from the north later destroyed the capital, and the ruler's family escaped to Penukonda, 125 miles (201 km) to the southeast, where they established their new capital.[c] Later, they moved another 175 miles (282 km) east-southeast to Chandragiri, not far from the coast, and survived there until 1635, their dwindling empire concentrating its resources on its eastern Tamil and Telugu speaking realms.[4] According to historian Sanjay Subrahmanyam: " ... in the ten years following 1565, the imperial centre of Vijayanagara effectively ceased to be a power as far as the western reaches of the peninsula were concerned, leaving a vacuum that was eventually filled by Ikkeri and Mysore."[4]

In the heyday of their rule, the kings of Vijayanagara had granted tracts of land in their realm to

Mysore in the south.[8] (Map 2
.)

Kaveri River
.

The southern chiefs (sometimes called rajas, or "little kings") resisted on moral and political grounds as well. According to historian Burton Stein:

'Little kings', or rajas, never attained the legal independence of an aristocracy from both monarchs and the local people whom they ruled. The sovereign claims of would-be centralizing, South Indian rulers and the resources demanded in the name of that sovereignty diminished the resources which local chieftains used as a kind of royal largess; thus centralizing demands were opposed on moral as well as on political grounds by even quite modest chiefs.[9]

These chiefs came to be called

Kannada: palagararu.[10]

In 1577, more than a decade after the Battle of Talikota, Bijapur forces attacked again and overwhelmed all opposition along the western coast. They easily took Adoni, a former Vijayanagara stronghold, and subsequently attempted to take Penukonda, the new Vijayanagara capital.[11] (Map 3).) They were, however, repulsed by an army led by the Vijayanagara ruler's father-in-law, Jagadeva Raya, who had travelled north for the engagement from his base in Baramahal. For his services, his territories within the crumbling empire were expanded out to the Western Ghats, the mountain range running along the southwestern coast of India; a new capital was established in Channapatna[12] (Map 6.)

Soon the Wodeyars of Mysore (present-day

Piriyapatna, becoming the dominant presence in the southern regions. (Map 6
.) By this time the Vijayanagara empire was on its last legs.

  • On the right is a map of India which shows it extending from Kashmir in the north to the border with Afghanistan in the west, to Bengal in the east and the Vijayanagara Empire in the South. On the left is a higher resolution map of peninsular India extracted from the first map. It shows the towns and cities of the Vijayanagara Empire, as well as some in the surrounding kingdoms.
    Map 2: South India in 1525
  • A political map of peninsular India c. 1605. The Mughal Empire lies above the peninsula; the peninsula consists of Ahmadnagar in the northwest, Bijapur in the west, Golconda in the east and northeast and the poligar kingdoms in the south and southeast.
    Map 3: South India at the turn of the 17th century
  • Map 4: Bijapur-Maratha provinces in South India
    Map 4: Bijapur-Maratha provinces in South India

Bijapur, Marathas, Mughals, 1636–1687

In 1636, nearly 60 years after their defeat at Penukonda, the

Shahaji Bhonsle, who was on the lookout for rewards of jagir land in the conquered territories the taxes on which he could collect as an annuity.[15]

A temple with a temple tank or pool and a few devotees. Behind, a hill rises steeply, covered here and there with huge boulders
Watercolour of the temple at Kolar, 1800. Kolar district was in the Carnatic-Bijapur-Payanghat province in the mid-17th century.

In the western-central poligar regions, the

Sira, and the hill fortress of Chitaldroog.[18] (See Map 4
.)

A new province, Caranatic-Bijapur-Balaghat, incorporating Kolar, Hoskote, Bangalore, and Sira, and situated above (or westwards of) the Eastern Ghats range, was added to the Sultanate of Bijapur and granted to Shahji as a jagir.[20] The possessions below the Ghats, such as Gingee and Vellore became part of another province, Carnatic-Bijapur-Payanghat, and Shahji was appointed its first governor.[20]

When Shahji died in 1664, his son

Shivaji Bhonsle—a chieftain back in the Maratha uplands—who swiftly led an expedition southwards to claim his share.[21][22] His quick victories resulted in a partition, whereby both the Carnatic-Bijapur provinces became his jagirs, and Tanjore was retained by Venkoji.[22] (See Map 4
.)

The successes of Bijapur and Shivaji were being watched with some alarm by their

Province of Sira, was created with capital at Sira city.[24] Qasim Khan was appointed the first Mughal Faujdar Diwan (literally, "military governor").[24]

Wodeyars of Mysore, 1610–1760

Although their own histories date the origins of the

Wodeyar clan issued its first inscription during the chieftaincy of Timmaraja (now Timmaraja II) who ruled from 1553 to 1572.[27][7] Towards the end of his rule, he is recorded to have owned 33 villages and fielded an army of 300 men.[27]

By the time of the short-lived incumbency of Timmaraja II's son, Chama Raja IV—who, well into his 60s, ruled from 1572 to 1576—the Vijayanagara Empire had been dealt its fatal blow.

Seringapatam.[32] The viceroy responded by attempting to arrest Chamaraja IV, failing, and letting the taxes remain unpaid.[32] An outright military challenge to the empire would have to await the incumbency of Raja I, Chama Raja IV's eldest son, who became the Wodeyar in 1578.[30] Raja I captured Seringapatam and, in a matter of days, moved his capital there on 8 February 1610.[32] (Map 5.) During his rule, according to Burton Stein, his "chiefdom expanded into a major principality".[27]

In 1638, the reins of power fell into the hands of the 23-year-old Kanthirava Narasaraja I, who had been adopted a few months earlier by the widow of Raja I.[32] Kanthirava was the first wodeyar of Mysore to create the symbols of royalty such as a royal mint, and coins named Kanthiraya (corrupted to "Canteroy") after himself.[32] These remained a part of Mysore's "current national money" well into the 18th century.[32]

Kannada language speakers), the rest being Tamil speakers from the western districts of modern-day Tamil Nadu, ..."[33]

Chamundi Hill
overlooking Mysore

After an unremarkable period of rule by short-lived incumbents, Kanthirava's 27-year-old great nephew,

Hindu god Shiva.[35] According to D. R. Nagaraja a slogan of the protests was:

Basavanna[e] the Bull tills the forest land; Devendra[f]

gives the rains;
Why should we, the ones who grow crops through hard labour, pay taxes to the king?[36]

The king used the stratagem of inviting over 400 monks to a grand feast at the famous Shaiva centre of Nanjanagudu. Upon its conclusion, he presented them with gifts and directed them to exit one at a time through a narrow lane where they were strangled by royal wrestlers who had been awaiting them.[36]

Around 1687 Chikka Devaraja purchased the city of

Coorg in the west to Dharmapuri district in the east. (Map 5 and Map 7
.)

  • On a map of south India are shown the shifting boundaries of Mysore over time; these show it expanding from 1617 to 1704 and even more in 1782, but contracting somewhat in 1799.
    Map 5: Varying boundaries of Mysore from 1617 to 1799
  • Political map of Mysore and Coorg region in 1625. It shows over a dozen principalities, the largest among which are: Mysore in the south, Bednur in the northwest, Chitaldroog in the north, and Kolar and Bangalore in the east.
    Map 6: wodeyar Mysore and other petty kingdoms in the region c. 1625
  • A map of south India shows a large Mysore bordered by the Kanara, Malabar, and Travancore coasts to its west and southwest, and by Hyderabad Carnatic on its east and southeast.
    Map 7: Mysore, c. 1704, during the reign of Chikka Devaraja
Aurengzeb to Chikka Devaraja
in 1704

According to Sanjay Subrahmanyam, the

Sword of State from Aurangzeb in 1700, Chikka Devaraja accepted an unspoken subordination to Mughal authority and a requirement to pay annual taxes.[38] There is evidence also that the administrative reforms Chikka Devaraja had instituted might have been a direct result of Mughal influence.[38]

The early 18th century ushered in the rule of

Haidar Ali in 1760.[39]

Nayakas of Ikkeri and Kanara trade, 1565–1763

In the northwestern regions, according to Stein,

an even more impressive chiefly house arose in Vijayanagara times and came to enjoy an extensive sovereignty. These were the

Keladi chiefs who later founded the Nayaka kingdom of Ikkeri. At its greatest, the Ikkeri rajas controlled a territory nearly as large as the Vijayanagara heartland, some 20,000 square miles, extending about 180 miles south from Goa along the trade-rich Kanara coast.[40]

When

Onor (now Honavar), Barcelor (now Basrur), and Mangalore and constructed fortresses and factories at each location.[42] (Map 1 and Map 8
.)

Watercolour of a river and a fort. The river's flow is disturbed by some small rocks; a hidden creek or stream runs into the river in the foreground; a small boat has been pulled out of the water and left resting on the far bank. The fort, with six visible turrets, is built on the edge of a cliff overlooking the river. Hills line the distant background.
Watercolour of Shimoga, 1805. Shimoga was an important stronghold of the Keladi Nayakas in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Onor (Modern

Gersoppa, where they purchased the pepper.[42] During the latter part of the 16th century and the first half of the 17th, Onor not only became the principal port for the export of Kanara pepper, but also the most important Portuguese supply point for pepper in all of Asia.[43]

Located some 50 miles (80 km) south of Onor, and a few miles up the

yard goods and horses.[43](Map 1 and Map 8
.)

Fifty miles south of Barcelore was Mangalore, the last of the Portuguese strongholds in Kanara; it was situated on the mouth of the

Muscat, Mozambique and Mombasa.[43]
(Map 1.)

English East India Company

As a ready source of rice, pepper, and teak, the Kanara coast was important to the Estado.[45] For much of the 16th century, Portuguese had been able to negotiate favourable terms of trade with the weak principalities that constituted the Kanara coast.[45] Towards the end of the century, the Nayaka ruler of Keladi (and Ikkeri), Venkatappa Nayaka (r. 1592–1629), and his successors, Virabhadra Nayaka (r. 1629–1645) and Shivappa Nayaka (r. 1645–1660) forced a revision of the previous trade treaties.[45] By the 1630s, the Portuguese had agreed to buy pepper at market rates and the rulers of Ikkeri had been permitted two voyages per year without the purchase of a cartaz (a pass for Portuguese protection) as well as annual importation of twelve duty-free horses.[45] When the last king of Vijayanagara sought refuge in his realms, Shivappa Nayaka set him up at Belur and Sakkarepatna, and later mounted an unsuccessful siege of

Seringapatam on the latter's behalf. By the 1650s, he had driven the Portuguese out of the three fortalezas at Onor, Barcelore, and Mangalore.[45] After his death in 1660, his successor Somashker Nayaka, however, sent an embassy to Goa for reestablishing the Portuguese trading posts in Kanara.[46] By 1671, a treaty had been agreed to which was very favorable once again to the Portuguese.[47] (Map 8 and Map 9
.)

Before the treaty could be implemented, though, Somashkar Nayaka died and was succeeded by an infant grandson Basava Nayaka, his succession disputed by the Queen Mother, who favoured another claimant, Timmaya Nayaka.

xerafins in Portuguese war-charges for the decade-long conflict with the Dutch (whom the Nayakas of Ikkeri had supported), to provide construction material for the factory at Mangalore, to provide 1,500 sacks of clean rice annually, to pay a yearly tribute for Mangalore and Barcelore, to destroy the factories of the Omani Arabs on the Kanara coast, and to allow Catholic churches to be built at a number of locations in Kanara.[49] With the treaty in place, Portuguese power returned to Kanara after an interregnum of almost half a century.[49]

Subahdars of Sira, 1689–1760

Main article:
Province of Sira
Haidar Ali's father, Fateh Muhammad, the military governor (faujdar) of Kolar district
in the province of Sira, is buried

A

Haidar Ali, whose father had been the Mughal military governor (or Faujdar) of Kolar district in the province, captured Sira, and soon conferred on himself the title of "Nawab of Sira".[53] However, the defection of his brother five years later caused the province to be lost again to the Marathas, who retained it until Haidar's son, Tipu Sultan, recaptured it for his father in 1774.[53]

The capital of the province, Sira town, prospered most under Dilavar Khan and expanded in size to accommodate 50,000 homes.

Seringapatam, built during the period 1761–1799 of their rule, were modelled after Dilavar Khan's palace in Sira.[50] Likewise, according to Rice, Bangalore's Lal Bagh as well as Bangalore fort may have been designed after Sira's Khan Bagh gardens and Sira fort.[50] Sira's civil servants, though, could not be as readily reproduced. After Tipu Sultan had succeeded his father as Sultan of Mysore in 1782, he deported 12,000 families, mainly of city officials, from Sira to Shahr Ganjam, a new capital he founded on Seringapatam island.[50]

Earlier, after the

Bijapur Sultanate administration, and consisted of Deshmūks, Deshpāndes, Majmūndārs, and Kānungoyas.[55] The Deshmūks "settled accounts" with the village headmen (or patels[56]); the Deshpāndes verified the account-books of the village registrars (or kārnāms[56]); the Kānungoyas entered the official regulations in the village record-books and also explained decrees and regulations to the village governing officers and residents.[55]
Lastly, the Majmūndārs prepared the final documents of the "settlement" (i.e. the assessment and payment of tax[h]) and promulgated it.[55]

  • An old map (of coastal southern India) in Portuguese, and not drawn to scale, is shown. The Indian Ocean is labelled, "Mer Des Indes," and Sri Lanka (or Ceylon), "Islede Ceylan." Also shown are the Maldives, which are labelled "Isles Maldives."
    Map 8: A 1692 map of South India showing Onor (
    Honavar), Barcelor (Basrur), and Mangalore on the western Kanara coast just below Goa
  • A multi-coloured map of Shimoga district with its various sub-districts.
    Map 9: An 1897 map of Shimoga district showing Ikkeri and Keladi in Sagar
    taluq
    on the west (in orange)
  • A political map of south India c. 1750 showing Mysore in the centre, Sira to the north, Kurpa to the northeast, Arcot to the east, Travancore, Cochin, and Malabar to the southwest, and Bednor to the west
    Map 10: The Mughal province of Sira shown in a map of South India at the time of the Anglo-French Wars in the Carnatic, 1746–1760.
  • The map shows sparsely labelled Coorg. The Arabian Sea is shown on the left
    Map 11: Map of Coorg province c. 1897

Until the mid-17th century, both village- and district (

Kannada, the region's traditional language.[58]
However, after the Bijapur invasions,
Moghul empire, came to be used.[58]

Rajas of Coorg, mid-16th century – 1768

Although, Rājendranāme, a "royal" genealogy of the rulers of

Jangama monk, he began to attract followers. With their help, or acquiescence, he took possession of the town, and in such manner eventually came to rule the country.[37][59] (Map 11.) According to the genealogy, the Coorg rajas
who ruled from the mid-16th century to the mid-18th century were:

Rulers of
Coorg from mid-16th century to mid-18th century[59]
Ruler Period of rule
Vira Raja Not known
Appaji Raja Not known
Mudu Raja 1633–1687
Dodda Virappa 1687–1738
Chikka Virappa 1738–1768

By the late 17th century, the rajas of Coorg had created an "aggressive and independent" state.

Piriyapatna. This was a territory abutting Coorg being ruled by a kinsman of Dodda Virappa (Map 11).[60][61] Uplifted by the victory, the Mysore army attacked Coorg. It had advanced but a short distance when, camping overnight on the Palupare plain, it was surprised by a Coorg ambush.[60][62] In the ensuing massacre, 15,000 Mysore soldiers were killed, the survivors beating a hasty retreat.[60][62] For the next two decades, the western reaches of Mysore remained vulnerable to attacks by the Coorg army.[60][62] In the border district of Yelusavira, for example, the Coorg and Mysore forces fought to a stalemate and, in the end, had to work out a tax-sharing arrangement.[60][62]

Coorg
with the fort in the background, 1795

In 1724, major hostilities resumed between Coorg and Mysore.

Coorg) forces, lacking cavalry, with a minimum of firearms, lost every major battle, but won the war by dint of two factors. First, the terrain, and the possibility of retreating periodically into the wooded hillside, favoured them, in contrast to their relatively clumsy opponents. Second, the Mysore army could never maintain a permanent presence in the region, given the fact that the Wodeyar kingdom had several open frontiers.[65]

More than a century earlier,

Lewis Rice, had written:

Dodda Virappa evinced throughout his long and vigorous reign an unconquerable spirit, and though surrounded by powerful neighbours, neither the number nor the strength of this enemies seems to have relaxed his courage or damped his enterprise. He died in 1736, 78 years old. Two of his wives ascended the funeral pile with the dead body of the Raja.[66]

Assessment: the period and its historiography

From the mid-15th century to the mid-18th century rulers of states in southern India commenced financing wars on a different footing than had their predecessors.[67] According to historian Burton Stein, all the rulers of the Mysore and Coorg region—the Vijayanagara emperors, the Wodeyars of Mysore, the Nayakas of Ikkeri, the Subahdars of Sira, and the Rajas of Coorg—fall to some degree under this category.[67] A similar political system, referred to as "military fiscalism" by French historian Martin Wolfe, took hold in Europe between the 15th and 17th centuries.[67] During this time, according to Wolfe, most regimes in Western Europe emerged from the aristocracy to become absolute monarchies; they simultaneously reduced their dependence on the aristocracy by expanding the tax base and developing an extensive tax collection structure.[67] In Stein's words,

Previously resistant aristocracies were eventually won over in early modern Europe by being offered state offices and honours and by being protected in their patrimonial wealth, but this was only after monarchies had proven their ability to defeat antiquated feudal forces and had found alternative resources in cities and from trade.[67]

In southern India, none of the pre-1760 regimes were able to achieve the "fiscal absolutism" of their European contemporaries.[68] Local chieftains, who had close ties with their social groups, and who had only recently risen from them, opposed the excessive monetary demands of a more powerful regional ruler.[68] Consequently, the larger states of this period in southern India, were not able to entirely change their mode of creating wealth from one of extracting tribute payments, which were seldom regular, to that of direct collection of taxes by government officials.[68] Extorting tribute under threat of military action, according to Stein, is not true "military fiscalism," although it is a means of approaching it.[68] This partial or limited military fiscalism began during the Vijayanagara Empire, setting the latter apart from the more "segmentary" regimes that had preceded it,[68] and was a prominent feature of all regimes during the period 1565–1760;[68] true military fiscalism was not achieved in the region until the rule of Tipu Sultan in the 1780s.[68]

Stein's formulation has been criticized by historian

Tanjavur—left little or no record of their administrations. Surveying the historiography, Subrahmanyam, says:

A major problem attendant on such generalisations by modern historians concerning pre-1760 Mysore is, however, the paucity of documentation on this older 'Old Regime'.[69]

The first explicit History of Mysore in English is Historical Sketches of the South of India, in an attempt to trace the History of Mysoor by

Lewis Rice's well-known Gazetteer of 1897 and C. Hayavadana Rao's major revision of the Gazetteer half a century later, and many modern spin-offs of these two works. In Subrahmanyam's words, "Wilks's work is an important one therefore, not only for its own sake, but for its having been regurgitated and reproduced time and again with minor variations."[71]

A

Kannada during the period 1710–1715, and was claimed to be based on all the then-extant inscriptions in the region.[71] Another genealogy, Kalale Doregala Vamśävali, of the Delvoys, the near-hereditary chief ministers of Mysore, was composed around the turn of the 19th century.[71] However, neither manuscript provides information about administration, economy or military capability.[71] The ruling dynasty's origins, especially as expounded in later palace genealogies, are also of doubtful accuracy; this is, in part, because the Wodeyars, who were reinstated by the British on the Mysore gaddi in 1799, to preside over a fragile sovereignty,[72] "obsessively" attempted to demonstrate their "unbroken" royal lineage,[73] to bolster their then uncertain status.[74]

The earliest manuscript offering clues to governance and military conflict in the pre-1760 Mysore, seems to be Dias (

Great Famine of 1876–78, which devastated Mysore for many years afterwards.,[81]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The austere, grandiose site of Hampi was the last capital of the last great Hindu Kingdom of Vijayanagar. Its fabulously rich princes built Dravidian temples and palaces which won the admiration of travellers between the 14th and 16th centuries. Conquered by the Deccan Muslim confederacy in 1565, the city was pillaged over a period of six months before being abandoned." From the brief description, UNESCO World Heritage List; India, Group of Monuments at Hampi.[1]
  2. ^ Krishnappa is said to have sent his able minister and chief agent of his consolidation of power in Madurai, Ariyanatha Mudaliar, with a large force to join Rama Raja as he marched northward to meet the assembled Muslim force on the Krishna River, eighty miles north of Vijayanagara. There, on the south bank of the river, in late January 1565, the Vijayanagara armies were at last decisively defeated, Rama Raja and many of his kinsmen and dependants were killed and the city opened to sacking by a combination of Golkonda soldiers and poligars from nearer to Vijayanagara. Rama Raja’s warrior brother Tirumala survived the battle and brought the remnants of the once great army to Vijayanagara. Soon after, at the approach of the celebrating Golkonda army, he sought a place of greater security. This may have been Penukonda, a longtime royal stronghold, 120 miles and eight days’ journey south-east of Vijayanagara; others believe that Tirumala took refuge behind the high walls of Venkatesvara’s temple at Tirupati, still further away. The Muslim confederates immediately retrieved most of the territory that had been seized by Rama Raja during the previous twenty years, but certain places remained in Hindu hands for a longer time: Adoni was held until 1568 and Dharwar and Bankapur until 1573. After looting and a brief occupation, Vijayanagara was left to a future of neglect which has only been lifted recently by archaeologists and art historians working at Hampi.[3]
  3. ^ Less than a year later, the sultanate confederates fell out. Bijapur attacked Ahmadnagar and Golkonda joined forces with the latter. Some contemporary accounts even relate how Tirumala was approached to become a co-belligerent against Bijapur in the resurgent struggles! This last scheme did not materialise, leaving Tirumala free to commence his rule of the kingdom, nominally as regent, for Sadasivaraya was still alive and remained so until perhaps 1575. Vijayanagara appears to have been reoccupied by Tirumala for a time after his victors departed, but his efforts to repopulate the city were frustrated by attacks upon it by Bijapur soldiers who might have been invited there by Peda Tirumala, Rama Raja’s son, who opposed his uncle’s seizure of the regency. Tirumala may also have decided to leave Vijayanagara because of the support that Peda Tirumala, his nephew, enjoyed there. In any case, he moved back to Penukonda where the court was to be.[3]
  4. ^ Located on an island in the Kaveri, the great sacred south Indian river, the fortress of Srirangapattana became the capital of the Hindu Wodeyar dynasty of Mysore in 1610. A foundation myth tells of a miraculous milch cow from whom milk flowed spontaneously into a pit and how the god Ranganatha appeared to the Kartar, or Raja, in a dream, instructing him to build a temple in his honour on the site (1). Another story, in the Sthalapurana, relates how the god came to reside on the island at the request of the river goddess. The myths reflect the auspicious nature of the location, whose situation made a potent source of sacred power, the power to which aspiring rulers sought access over the centuries. It is little wonder, then, that Seringapatam, as it is more familiarly known, remained Mysore's capital, through fluctuating fortunes, until its final conquest by the British in 1799. In more mundane terms, the establishment of Wodeyar power had been facilitated by the decline of the empire of Vijayanagara, whose suzerainty Mysore continued to acknowledge for another fifty-eight years. Successors in the region to the hegemony of the Colas and the Hoysalas, the rulers of this great Hindu dynasty, held sway in the south for over two hundred years.[6]
  5. Virasaivas
    into prominence.
  6. ^ Devendra, or Indra, is the Vedic Hindu god of war, thunder, and rain.
  7. Sufi
    saint.
  8. ^ "In India: The process of assessing the government land-tax over a specific area."[57]

Citations

  1. ^ UNESCO & World Heritage Convention 1986.
  2. ^ Black 1996, p. 22.
  3. ^ a b c Stein 1987, pp. 118–119.
  4. ^ a b Subrahmanyam 2002, p. 133.
  5. ^ a b Stein 1987, pp. 49–50.
  6. ^ Brittlebank 1997, p. 17.
  7. ^ a b c d e Simmons 2019, p. 6.
  8. ^ a b c Michell 1995, p. 18.
  9. ^ Stein 1985, p. 392.
  10. ^ Robb 2011, p. 66.
  11. ^ Michell & Zebrowski 1999, pp. 17–18.
  12. ^ Subrahmanyam 2012, p. 69.
  13. ^ Stein 2013, p. 198.
  14. ^ a b c Stein 1987, p. 83.
  15. ^ a b c Robb 2011, pp. 103–104.
  16. ^ Subrahmanyam 2002, p. 33–35.
  17. ^ Stein 1987, p. 123.
  18. ^ a b c Ahmed 2011, p. 315.
  19. ^ a b Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 175.
  20. ^ a b c Roy 2015, p. 74.
  21. ^ Hunt & Stern 2015, p. 9.
  22. ^ a b Roy 2013, p. 33.
  23. ^ a b Gordon 2007, p. 92.
  24. ^ a b c d e f Ravishankar 2018, p. 360.
  25. ^ Knipe 2015, p. 40.
  26. ^ Kamdar 2018, p. 41.
  27. ^ a b c d e f Stein 1987, p. 82.
  28. ^ Manor 1975, p. 33.
  29. ^ Ramusack 2004, p. 28.
  30. ^ a b Michell 1995, pp. 17–.
  31. ^ Simmons 2019, p. 126.
  32. ^ a b c d e f g Simmons 2019, pp. 6–8.
  33. ^ a b c d e Subrahmanyam 1989, pp. 208–209.
  34. ^ Bandyopadhyay 2004, p. 33.
  35. ^ a b c Stein 1985, pp. 400–401.
  36. ^ a b Nagaraj 2003, pp. 378–379.
  37. ^ a b c d Subrahmanyam 1989, p. 212.
  38. ^ a b c d e Subrahmanyam 1989, p. 213.
  39. ^ Rice 1897a, p. 370.
  40. ^ Stein 1987, pp. 83–84.
  41. ^ Disney 1978, p. 2.
  42. ^ a b c d e f Disney 1978, p. 4.
  43. ^ a b c d e f g Disney 1978, p. 5.
  44. ^ Ames 2000, p. 11.
  45. ^ a b c d e Ames 2000, p. 157.
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  51. ^ Rice 1908, p. 166.
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  53. ^ a b c d e f g Rice 1897b, p. 166.
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  55. ^ a b c d e f Rice 1897a, p. 589.
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  57. ^ "Settlement (n), 10", Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, retrieved 24 October 2020
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Sources used

Secondary sources

Primary sources

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