Political history of medieval Karnataka

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The political history of medieval Karnataka spans the

Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi, the earliest of the native rulers to conduct administration in the native language of Kannada in addition to the official Sanskrit
. This is the historical starting point in studying the development of the region as an enduring geopolitical entity and of Kannada as an important regional language.

In the southern regions of Karnataka, the

Bijapur Sultanate
from the northern Deccan region caused a mingling of the ancient Hindu traditions with the nascent Islamic culture in the region. The hereditary ruling families and clans ably served the large empires and upheld the local culture and traditions. The fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565 brought about a slow disintegration of Kannada-speaking regions into minor kingdoms that struggled to maintain autonomy in an age dominated by foreigners until unification and independence in 1947.

Kadambas and Gangas

See also:
Western Ganga Dynasty, and Western Ganga literature
Doddagaddavalli
Kadamba Empire
, 500 CE.

Prior to and during the early centuries of the first millennium, large areas of the Karnataka region was ruled by such imperial powers as the

Pallava guard, rose in rage against the Pallava control of the Banavasi region and declared his independence in 345.[8][9][10] After many wars, the Pallava king had to accept the sovereignty of the Kadambas and Mayurasharma, the founding king, crowned himself at Banavasi (in the present day Uttara Kannada district).[11]

Western Ganga Territories
, 800 CE.

The fact that the Kadambas cultivated marital ties with the imperial

Vakatakas and Gupta dynasties attests to their power.[12] Kakusthavarma, the most powerful ruler of the dynasty whom inscriptions describe as "ornament of the Kadamba family" and "Sun among the kings of wide spread flame", gave one daughter in marriage to Vakataka Narendrasena and another to Skandagupta, grandson of Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty.[13][14] Historians trace their rise to political power through the examination of the contemporaneous Sanskrit writing, Aichitya Vichara Charcha by Kshemendra, which quotes portions of a writing Kunthalesvara Dautya by the famous poet Kalidasa. Here Kalidasa describes his visit to the Kadamba kingdom as an ambassador where he was not offered a seat in the court of the Kadamba king and had to sit on the ground. Historians view this act as one of assertion by the Kadambas who considered themselves equal to the imperial Gupta dynasty.[15]

Kambadahalli
.

Family feuds and conflicts ended the Kadamba rule in the middle of the 6th century when the last Kadamba ruler Krishna Varma II was subdued by

Belgaum district. The most prominent feature of their architectural style, one that remained popular centuries later and was used by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagar kings, is the Kadamba Shikara (Kadamba tower) with a Kalasa (pot) on top.[18]

The

Kambadahalli.[25] Their free standing pillars (called Mahasthambhas and Brahmasthambhas) and Hero stones (virgal) with sculptural detail are also considered a unique contribution.[26]

Badami Chalukyas

Badami Chalukya Empire during the reign of Pulakeshin II, 640 CE.
See also:
Badami Chalukya Architecture

The

Alupas of South Canara, Mauryas of Puri, Kingdom of Kosala, Malwa, Lata and Gurjaras of southern Rajasthan. The inscription describes how King Harsha of Kannauj lost his Harsha (joyful disposition) on seeing a large number of his war elephants die in battle against Pulakeshin II.[37][38][39][40][41]

Badami Cave Temples
No 3.(Vishnu)

These victories earned him the title Dakshinapatha Prithviswamy (lord of the south). Pulakeshin II continued his conquests in the east where he conquered all kingdoms in his way and reached the

Kalabhra ruler.[52]

The

Malaprabha basin in Karnataka.[54] The constructions are centred in a relatively small area within the Chalukyan heartland. The structural temples at Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the cave temples of Badami, the temples at Mahakuta and early experiments in temple building at Aihole are their most celebrated monuments.[53] Two of the famous paintings at Ajanta
cave no. 1, "The Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are also credited to them. [55][56] Further, they influenced the architecture in far off places like Gujarat and Vengi as evidenced in the Nava Brahma temples at Alampur.[57]

Rashtrakutas

See also:
Rashtrakuta Dynasty and Rashtrakuta literature
Rashtrakuta Empire
in 800 CE, 915 CE.

In the middle of the 8th century the Chalukya rule was ended by their feudatory, the Rashtrakuta family rulers of

Manyakheta their capital (modern Malkhed in Kalaburagi district).[60][61] Although the origins of the early Rashtrakuta ruling families in central India and the Deccan in the 6th and 7th centuries is controversial, during the eighth through the tenth centuries they emphasised the importance of the Kannada language in conjunction with Sanskrit in their administration. Rashtrakuta inscriptions are in Kannada and Sanskrit only. They encouraged literature in both languages and thus literature flowered under their rule.[62][63][64][65][66]

Kailash Temple in Ellora Caves

The Rashtrakutas quickly became the most powerful Deccan empire, making their initial successful forays into the

Gangetic plains.[68] Because of Govinda III's victories, historians have compared him to Alexander the Great and Pandava Arjuna of the Hindu epic Mahabharata.[69]
The Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank the icy water of the Himalayan stream and his war elephants tasted the
Amoghavarsha I, eulogised by contemporary Arab traveller Sulaiman as one among the four great emperors of the world, succeeded Govinda III to the throne and ruled during an important cultural period that produced landmark writings in Kannada and Sanskrit.[71][72][73] The benevolent development of Jain religion was a hallmark of his rule. Because of his religious temperament, his interest in the arts and literature and his peace-loving nature,[71] he has been compared to emperor Ashoka.[74] The rule of Indra III in the tenth century enhanced the Rashtrakuta position as an imperial power as they conquered and held Kannauj again.[75] Krishna III followed Indra III to the throne in 939. A patron of Kannada literature and a powerful warrior, his reign marked the submission of the Paramara of Ujjain in the north and Cholas in the south.[76]

An Arabic writing Silsilatuttavarikh (851) called the Rashtrakutas one among the four principle empires of the world.

Banaras in the east to Broach (Bharuch) in the west.[79]
While the Rashtrakutas built many fine monuments in the Deccan, the most extensive and sumptuous of their work is the monolithic Kailasanatha temple at
UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[81]

Western Chalukyas

See also:
Western Chalukya Architecture
Western Chalukya Empire in 1121 CE.

In the late 10th century, the

Badami Chalukyas is still debated.[82][83] Whatever the Western Chalukya origins, Kannada remained their language of administration and the Kannada and Sanskrit literature of their time was prolific.[65][84][85][86] Tailapa II, a feudatory ruler from Tardavadi (modern Bijapur district), re-established the Chalukya rule by defeating the Rashtrakutas during the reign of Karka II. He timed his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused by the invading Paramara of Central India to the Rashtrakutas capital in 973.[87][88][89] This era produced prolonged warfare with the Chola dynasty of Tamilakam for control of the resources of the Godavari River-Krishna River doab region in Vengi. Someshvara I, a brave Chalukyan king, successfully curtailed the growth of the Chola Empire to the south of the Tungabhadra River region despite suffering some defeats[90][91] while maintaining control over his feudatories in the Konkan, Gujarat, Malwa and Kalinga regions.[92] For approximately 100 years, beginning in the early 11th century, the Cholas occupied large areas of South Karnataka region (Gangavadi).[93]

Western Chalukya art
.

In 1076, the ascent of the most famous king of this Chalukya family,

Kaveri River in the south. Vikramaditya VI is considered one of the most influential kings of Indian history.[96][97] Important architectural works were created by these Chalukyas, especially in the Tungabhadra river valley, that served as a conceptual link between the building idioms of the early Badami Chalukyas and the later Hoysalas.[98][99]
With the weakening of the Chalukyas in the decades following the death of Vikramaditya VI in 1126, the feudatories of the Chalukyas gained their independence.

The

Kalyani.[102] His rule was cut short by his assassination in 1167 and the ensuing civil war caused by his sons fighting over the throne ended the dynasty as the last Chalukya scion regained control of Kalyani. This victory however, was short-lived as the Chalukyas were eventually driven out by the Seuna Yadavas.[103]

Hoysalas

See also:
Literature in the Hoysala Empire, and Hoysala architecture
Hoysala Empire
in 1200 CE.

The Hoysalas had become a powerful force even during their rule from

Malnad Karnataka, based on the numerous inscriptions calling them Maleparolganda or "Lord of the Male (hills) chiefs" (Malepas).[104][107][108][109][110][111]
With the waning of the Western Chalukya power, the Hoysalas declared their independence in the late twelfth century.

Shilabalika, Chennakeshava Temple, Belur.

During this period of Hoysala control, distinctive Kannada literary metres such as Ragale (blank verse), Sangatya (meant to be sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument), Shatpadi (six-line verse or sestet) etc. became widely accepted.

Hoysaleshwara Temple at Halebidu.[116] Both these temples were built in commemoration of the victories of the Hoysala Vishnuvardhana against the Cholas in 1116.[117][118] Veera Ballala II
, the most effective of the Hoysala rulers, defeated the aggressive Pandya when they invaded the Chola kingdom and assumed the titles "Establisher of the Chola Kingdom" (Cholarajyapratishtacharya), "Emperor of the south" (Dakshina Chakravarthi) and "Hoysala emperor" (Hoysala Chakravarthi).[119] The Hoysalas extended their foothold in areas known today as Tamil Nadu around 1225, making the city of Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam a provincial capital.[105] This gave them control over South Indian politics that began a period of Hoysala hegemony in the southern Deccan.[120][121]

In the early 13th century, with the Hoysala power remaining unchallenged, the first of the

Tungabhadra region in present-day Karnataka. The new kingdom thrived for another two centuries with Vijayanagara as its capital.[123]

Vijayanagara Empire

See also:
Vijayanagara Architecture
Vijayanagara Empire in late 15th century.

The Vijayanagara Empire quickly rose to imperial status as early as the late 14th century. During the reign of

Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim.[129][130] After a brief decline, the empire reached its peak in the early 16th century during the rule of Krishnadevaraya when the Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalinga, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south.[131]

Stone Chariot Hampi

Many important monuments at

Keladi Nayaka of Shimoga held sway while the northern regions were under the control of the Bijapur Sultanate.[137]
The Nayaka kingdom lasted into the 18th century before merging with the Kingdom of Mysore which remained a princely state until Indian independence in 1947, though they came under the British Raj (rule) in 1799 following the defeat and death of the last independent Mysore king, Tipu Sultan.

Bahmani Sultanate

Main article: Bahmani Sultanate
Bahmani Sultanate territories, 1470.

The

Rajamundry, areas that he annexed in 1417. His last encounter with the Vijayanagara armies in 1417 was disastrous and led to his defeat, ill health and ultimate death in 1422.[139]

Contemporary writers such as Tabataba, in his writings have heaped praise on Firuz Shah. Tabataba wrote of the king as, "[a]n impetuous, mighty monarch who patronised learned men, Sheiks and hermits", while Shirazi described him as "a just, pious and generous king and one without equal". He has earned the honorific Sultan-i-ghazian for his bravery, tolerant nature and patronage of the fine arts.[140] In the opinion of one historian, Firuz Shah was one of the most notable Sultans to rule in India.[141] Another well-known figure from this kingdom was Kwaja Mahamud Gavan, the prime minister, who served under several kings and regents. He rose above the kings and princess of the dynasty by virtue of his ministerial, administrative, martial, literary and philanthropic abilities. A Persian by descent and a visitor to Bidar in 1445, he impressed the ruling Sultan Alla-ud-din II and was chosen to become a minister in his court. As a commander he was able to extend the kingdom from Hubli in the south to Goa in the west and Kondavidu and Rajamahendri in the east. He soon rose to the position of prime minister (Vakil-Us-Sultanat).[142]

The Bahamanis introduced the large-scale use of paper in administration and began the Indo-Sarasenic architectural style, designed and constructed by Persian architects and artisans, (also known as Deccani architecture) with its local influences in Karnataka.[143] The Sultanate monuments of Bidar and Gulbarga are testimony to their interest in architecture. The Bande Nawaz tombs and a Jama Masjid in Gulbarga which exhibits a Spanish influence are well known. In Bidar, their buildings have Persian, Turkish, Arabic and Roman influences (the Solah Khamba mosque being an example).[144] Rangin Mahal, Gangan Mahal, Tarkash Mahal, Chini Mahal, Nagina Mahal and the Taqk Mahal are some of the palaces built by them that have retained their beauty. The Ahmad Shah Wali tombs are noted for their decor, and the school of learning (madrasa) built by Gavan in Bidar (1472), with its lecture halls, library, mosque and residential houses are also famous.[145] In the later part of the 15th century, with a growing rift between the local Deccani Muslims and the Pardeshi Muslims (foreign) who occupied influential positions in the kingdom, the execution of Gavan under dubious circumstances in 1481, and constant wars with the Vijayanagara kings weakened the Bahamani Kingdom eventually bringing about its end in 1527.[146]

Bijapur Sultanate

Main article:
Bijapur Sultanate
Bijapur Sultanate
territories under Ibrahim II, 1620 CE.

The

Bijapur Sultanate (or Adilshahi Kingdom) emerged towards the end of the 15th century with the weakening of the Bahmani Sultanate . The main sources of information about this kingdom comes from contemporaneous inscriptions and writings in Persian and Kannada, travelogues of European visitors to the Deccan and inscriptions of neighbouring kingdoms.[147] In 1489, Yusuf Adilkhan, a Turkic general in the Bahmani army, broke away to found the kingdom from modern Bijapur . Throughout his rule, the Sultanate was at war with the Vijayanagara Empire over the strategic Raichur doab, with the Portuguese over Goa, with the Barid Shahis of Bidar and later with the erstwhile feudatories of the Vijayanagara Empire who had gained independence after 1565. The Italian writer Varathema wrote about the founder Adilkhan and Bijapur, "A powerful and prosperous king", "the city was encircled by many fortifications and contained beautiful and majestic buildings".[147]

Inter-Sultanate marriages normalised relations and Ali I (1557–1580) joined a confederacy of Sultanates who eventually inflicted a crushing defeat on the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565.

Ahmadnagar joined the Bijapur army and along with commander Ranadullah Khan conducted many successful campaigns in the southern Deccan collecting tribute from local rulers there. The final end of the diminished Vijayanagara Empire ruling from Vellore came during these campaigns.[151]

Bijapur, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia
.

However, the rise of

Lakshmeshwar is a synthesis of Hindu and Muslim styles. The Ibrahim Rauza built by Ibrahim II is a combination of a mausoleum and a mosque and is called the "Taj Mahal of the Deccan".[154] The Gol Gumbaz built by Muhammad is the largest dome in India and the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia with an impressive "whispering gallery". Some historians consider this one of the architectural marvels of the world.[155] Persian language was given state patronage while the use of the local languages, Kannada and Marathi was popularised in local affairs.[156]

Modern era

See also: Kingdom of Mysore
Kingdom of Mysore under Tipu Sultan.
Mysore Palace at dusk (Indo-Saracenic style).

The fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565 at the

Marathas, and among themselves, caused further instability in the region.[161] Major areas of Karnataka came under the rule of the Mughals and the Marathas. Under Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan, the Mysore Kingdom reached its zenith of power but had to face the growing English might who by now had a firm foothold in the subcontinent.[162] After the death of Tipu Sultan in 1799 in the fourth Anglo-Mysore war, the Mysore Kingdom came under the British umbrella.[163] More than a century later, with the dawn of India as an independent nation in 1947, the unification of Kannada speaking regions
as modern Karnataka state brought four centuries of political uncertainty (and centuries of foreign rule) to an end.

Timeline

KarnatakaWodeyar dynastyKalyani ChalukyasBritish RajNayakas of KeladiBahmaniWestern GangasKingdom of MysoreVijaynagarSeuna Yadavas of DevagiriRastrakutasKadamba DynastyWodeyar dynastyWodeyar dynastyAdil Shahi dynastyHoysalasChalukyasSatavahana dynastyKannadaKannadaHalegannadaKannadaKannada

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Ramesh (1984), pp1–3
  2. ^ From the Halmidi inscription (Ramesh 1984, pp10–11)
  3. ^ The Kadambas were Kanarese speaking dravidians inducted into the Brahmin fold (Moraes 1931, p11)
  4. ^ Their local tribal origins is attested by the Talagunda inscription, R.N. Nandi in Adiga (2006), p93
  5. ^ Ramesh (1984), p3
  6. ^ Some inscriptions claim the Kadambas came from a Naga descent (snake worshippers) making them natives of Karnataka region, Moraes (1931), p10
  7. ^ Kamath (2001), p30
  8. ^ From the Talagunda inscription (B.L. Rice in Kamath 2001, pp 30–31)
  9. ^ Ramesh (1984), 1984, p6
  10. ^ Moraes (1931), p10
  11. ^ Chopra (2003), p161, part1; Kamath (2001), p30
  12. ^ Moraes (1931), p26
  13. ^ From the Talagunda inscription (Moraes 1931, pp26–27)
  14. ^ From the Balaghat inscription of Vakataka Prithvisena (Kamath 2001, p33)
  15. ^ Moraes, Desai and Panchamukhi in Kamath (2001), p33
  16. ^ Chopra (2003), p162, part1; Kamath (2001), p35
  17. ^ Moraes in Kamath (2001), p37
  18. ^ Kamath (2001), p38
  19. ^ Chopra (2003), p159, part1; Kamath (2001), p40
  20. Jain
    influence added to their own innovations are the main features of their architectural idiom (Reddy, Sharma and Rao in Kamath 2001, p50)
  21. ^ Chopra (2003), p160, part1
  22. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p2
  23. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p18
  24. ^ Chopra (2003), pp159–160, part1; Kamath (2001), p50
  25. ^ Kamath (2001), pp51–52
  26. ^ Fergusson in Kamath (2001), p52
  27. ^ N. Laxminarayana Rao and S. C. Nandinath in Kamath 2001, p57
  28. ^ Keay (2000), p168
  29. ^ Jayasimha and Ranaraga, ancestors of Pulakeshin I, were administrative officers in the Badami province under the Kadambas (Fleet in Kanarese Dynasties, p343), (Moraes 1931, p51)
  30. ^ Thapar (2003), p328
  31. ^ Quote:"They belonged to the Karnataka country and their mother tongue was Kannada" (Sen 1999, p360); Kamath (2001), p58,
  32. ^ Considerable number of their records are in Kannada (Kamath 2001, p67)
  33. ^ 7th century Chalukya inscriptions call Kannada the natural language (Thapar 2003, p345)
  34. ^ Sen (1999), p360
  35. ^ In this composition, the poet deems himself an equal to Sanskrit scholars of lore like Bharavi and Kalidasa (Sastri 1955, p312
  36. ^ Kamath (2001), p59
  37. ^ Keay (2000), p169
  38. ^ Sen (1999), pp361–362
  39. ^ Kamath (2001), pp59–60
  40. ^ Some of these kingdoms may have submitted out of fear of Harshavardhana of Kannauj (Majumdar in Kamat 2001, p59)
  41. ^ The rulers of Kosala were the Panduvamshis of South Kosala (Sircar in Kamath 2001, pp59)
  42. ^ Keay (2000), p170
  43. ^ Kamath (2001), pp58
  44. ^ Ramesh 1984, p76
  45. ^ From the notes of Arab traveller Tabari (Kamath 2001, p60)
  46. ^ a b Smith, Vincent Arthur (1904). The Early History of India. The Clarendon press. pp. 325–327.
  47. ^ Sen (1999), p362
  48. ^ Thapar (2003), p331, p345
  49. ^ Sastri (1955) p140
  50. ^ Ramesh (1984), pp159–160
  51. ^ Sen (1999), p364
  52. ^ Ramesh (1984), p159
  53. ^ a b Hardy (1995), p65–66
  54. ^ Over 125 temples exist in Aihole alone, Michael D. Gunther, 2002. "Monuments of India". Retrieved 10 November 2006.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  55. ^ Arthikaje, Mangalore. "History of Karnataka—Chalukyas of Badami". © 1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived from the original on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 10 November 2006.
  56. ^ The Badami Chalukya introduced in the western Deccan a glorious chapter alike in heroism in battle and cultural magnificence in peace (K.V. Sounderrajan in Kamath 2001, p68
  57. ^ Kamath (2001), p68
  58. ^ From the Rashtrakuta inscriptions (Kamath 2001, p57, p64)
  59. ^ The Samangadh copper plate grant (753) confirms that feudatory Dantidurga defeated the Chalukyas and humbled their great Karnatik army (referring to the army of the Badami Chalukyas) (Reu 1933, p54)
  60. ^ A capital which could put to shame even the capital of gods-From Karda plates (Altekar 1934, p47)
  61. ^ A capital city built to excel that of Indra (Sastri, 1955, p4, p132, p146)
  62. ^ Altekar (1934), pp411–413
  63. ^ Chopra (2003), p87, part1; Literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flowered during the Rashtrakuta rule (Kamath 2001, p73, pp 88–89)
  64. ^ Even royalty of the empire took part in poetic and literary activities (Thapar 2003, p334)
  65. ^ a b c Narasimhacharya (1988), p68, p17–21
  66. Reu
    (1933), pp37–38
  67. ^ Chopra (2003), p89, part1; His victories were a "digvijaya" gaining only fame and booty in that region (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p75)
  68. ^ Chopra (2003), p90, part1
  69. ^ Keay (2000), p199)
  70. ^ Kamath 2001, p76
  71. ^ a b Chopra (2003), p91, part1
  72. ^ Kavirajamarga in Kannada and Prashnottara Ratnamalika in Sanskrit (Reu 1933, p38)
  73. ^ Kamath (2001), p90
  74. ^ Panchamukhi in Kamath (2001), p80
  75. ^ Chopra (2003), p92, part1; Altekar in Kamath 2001, p81
  76. ^ Chopra (2003), p92–93, part1
  77. ^ Reu (1933), p39
  78. ^ Murujul Zahab by Al Masudi (944), Kitabul Akalim by Al Istakhri (951), Ashkal-ul-Bilad by Ibn Haukal (976) (Reu 1933, p41–42)
  79. ^ From the Sanjan inscriptions, Dr. Jyotsna Kamat. "The Rashrakutas". 1996–2006 Kamat's Potpourri. Retrieved 20 December 2006.
  80. ^ Keay (2000), p200
  81. ^ Vijapur, Raju S. "Reclaiming past glory". Deccan Herald. Spectrum. Archived from the original on 7 October 2011. Retrieved 27 February 2007.
  82. ^ Chopra (2003), p137, part1
  83. ^ Fleet, Bhandarkar and Altekar and Gopal B.R in (Kamath 2001, p100)
  84. ^ Sen (1999), p. 393
  85. ^ Sastri (1955), pp356–358; Kamath (2001), p114
  86. ^ More inscriptions in Kannada are attributed to the Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI than to any other king prior to the 12th century, Kamat, Jyotsna. "Chalukyas of Kalyana". 1996–2006 Kamat's Potpourri. Retrieved 24 December 2006.
  87. ^ From the 957 and 965 records (Kamath 2001, p101)
  88. ^ Sastri 1955, p162
  89. Hanagal
    (Moraes 1931, pp 93–94)
  90. ^ Ganguli in Kamath 2001, p103
  91. ^ Sastri (1955), p167–168
  92. ^ Kamath (2001), p104
  93. ^ Sastri (1955), p164, p174; The Cholas occupied Gangavadi from 1004 to 1114 (Kamath 2001, p118)
  94. ^ a b c Chopra (2003), p139, part1
  95. ^ Thapar, 2003, pp 468–469
  96. ^ Poet Bilhana in his Sanskrit work wrote "Rama Rajya" regarding his rule, poet Vijnaneshwara called him "A king like none other" (Kamath 2001, p106)
  97. ^ Sastri (1955), p6
  98. ^ Quote:"Of the city of Kalyana, situated in the north of Karnataka nothing is left, but a fabulous revival in temple building during the 11th century in central Karnataka testifies to the wealth during Kalyan Chalukya rule"(Foekema (1996), p14)
  99. ^ Kamath (2001), p107
  100. ^ From the 1142 and 1147 records, Kamath (2001), p108
  101. ^ Chopra (2003), p139, part1; From the Chikkalagi records (Kamath 2001, p108)
  102. ^ Chopra (2003), p140, part1; Kamath (2001) p109
  103. ^ a b Sen (1999), p498
  104. ^ a b Sen (1999), p499
  105. ^ Vishnuvardhana made many military conquests later to be further expanded by his successors into one of the most powerful empires of South India—William Coelho. He was the true maker of the Hoysala kingdom—B.S.K. Iyengar in Kamath (2001), p124–126
  106. ^ B.L.Rice in Kamath (2001), p123
  107. ^ Keay (2000), p251
  108. ^ Thapar (2003), p367
  109. ^ Kamath (2001), p123
  110. ^ Natives of south Karnataka (Chopra, 2003, p150 Part1)
  111. ^ Shiva Prakash in Ayyappapanicker (1997), pp164, 203; Rice E. P. (1921), p59
  112. ^ Kamath (2001), pp132–134
  113. ^ Sastri (1955), p359, p361
  114. ^ Sastri (1955), p427
  115. ^ Sen (1999), pp500–501
  116. ^ Foekema (1996), p14
  117. ^ Kamath (2001), p124
  118. ^ The most outstanding of the Hoysala kings according to Barrett and William Coelho in Kamath (2001), p126
  119. ^ B.S.K. Iyengar in Kamath (2001), p126
  120. ^ Keay (2000), p252
  121. ^ Sen (1999), p500
  122. Kannadiga commanders of the Hoysala army and another that they were Telugu speakers and commanders of the earlier Kakatiya Kingdom
    (Kamath 2001, pp 159–160)
  123. ^ Sastri (1955), p241
  124. ^ Chopra (2003), p28, part2
  125. ^ Indicated by records of the Ming dynasty (Kamath 2001, p162)
  126. ^ Sastri (1955), p244
  127. ^ Chopra (2003), p32, part2
  128. ^ Chopra (2003), p32, part2; From the notes of Persian Abdur Razzak. Writings of Nuniz confirms that the kings of Burma paid tributes to Vijayanagara empire (Sastri 1955, p245)
  129. ^ Kamath (2001), p164
  130. ^ Chopra (2003), pp37–39, part2; The notes of Portuguese Barbosa during the time of Krishnadevaraya confirms a very rich and well provided Vijayanagara city (Kamath 2001, p186)
  131. Percy Brown
    calls Vijayanagar architecture a blossoming of Dravidian style–Kamath (2001), p182
  132. ^ Chopra (2003), pp171–173, part2; Kamath (2001), pp181–182
  133. ^ Owing to his contributions to carnatic music, Purandaradasa is known as Karnataka Sangita Pitamaha.Dr. Jyotsna Kamat. "Purandara Dasa". Kamats Potpourri. Retrieved 31 December 2006.
  134. ^ Madhusudana Rao CR. "Sri Purandara Dasaru". Dvaita Home Page. Retrieved 31 December 2006.
  135. ^ S. Sowmya, K. N. Shashikiran. "History of Music". Srishti's Carnatica Private Limited. Retrieved 31 December 2006.
  136. ^ Kamath (2001), p174
  137. ^ Chopra (2003), p53, part2; Kamath (2001), p190
  138. ^ a b Chopra (2003), pp56–57, part2; Kamath (2001), p191
  139. ^ Chopra (2003), p57, part2; Kamath (2001), p192
  140. ^ Sinha in Kamath (2001), p192
  141. ^ Chopra (2003), p63, part2; Kamath (2001), p195
  142. ^ Chopra (2003), pp181–182, part2; Kamath (2001), p198
  143. ^ Kamath (2001), p198
  144. ^ Chopra (2003), p182, part2; Kamath (2001), p199
  145. ^ Chopra (2003), p62, pp64–65, part2; Kamath (2001), p194
  146. ^ a b Kamath (2001), p200
  147. ^ Kamath (2001), p201
  148. ^ a b Kamath (2001), p202
  149. ^ Sinha in Kamath (2001), p2002
  150. ^ Kamath (2001), p203
  151. ^ Kamath (2001), p207
  152. ^ Fergusson in Kamath (2001), p207
  153. ^ Fergusson in Kamath (2001), p208
  154. ^ Kamath (2001), p209
  155. ^ Kamath (2001), p206
  156. ^ Nagaraj in Pollock (2003), p370; Kamath (2001), p171, p174
  157. ^ Subrahmanyam (2001), pp67–68; Kamath (2001), pp173–174
  158. ^ Chopra (2003), p96, part2; Kamath (2006), pp173–174
  159. ^ Chopra (2003), pp101; Kamath (2006), p204
  160. ^ Kamath (2001), p226
  161. ^ Chopra (2003), p71, part3; Kamath (2001), p231–234
  162. ^ Chopra (2003), pp80–81, part3

References

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