Political history of the world

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The political history of the

totalitarian systems that exist today. In parallel, political entities have expanded from vaguely defined frontier-type boundaries
, to the national definite boundaries existing today.

Prehistoric era

Main article: Prehistory

The primate ancestors of human beings already had social and political skills.[1] The first forms of human social organization were families living in band societies as hunter-gatherers.[2]

After the

invention of agriculture around the same time (7,000-8,000 BCE) across various parts of the world, human societies started transitioning to tribal forms of organization.[3] Food surpluses made possible the development of a social elite who were not otherwise engaged in agriculture, industry or commerce, but dominated their communities by other means and monopolized decision-making. Nonetheless, larger societies made it more feasible for people to adopt diverse decision making and governance models.[4]

There is evidence of diplomacy between different tribes, but also of

endemic warfare.[5] This could have been caused by theft of livestock or crops, abduction of women, or resource and status competition.[6]

The Three-age system of periodization of prehistory was first introduced for Scandinavia by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen in the 1830s. By the 1860s, it was embraced as a useful division of the "earliest history of mankind" in general[7] and began to be applied in Assyriology. The development of the now-conventional periodization in the archaeology of the Ancient Near East was developed in the 1920s to 1930s.[8]

Ancient history

Main article: Ancient history

The early distribution of political power was determined by the availability of fresh water, fertile soil, and temperate climate of different locations.[9] These were all necessary for the development of highly organized societies.[9] The locations of these early societies were near, or benefiting from, the edges of tectonic plates.[10]

The

Indus Valley Civilization was located next to the Himalayas (which were created by tectonic pressures) and the Indus and Ganges rivers, which deposit sediment from the mountains to produce fertile land.[11] A similar dynamic existed in Mesopotamia, where the Tigris and Euphrates did the same with the Zagros Mountains.[12] Ancient Egypt was helped by the Nile depositing sediments from the East African highlands of its origins, while the Yellow River and Yangtze acted in the same way for Ancient China.[13] Eurasia was advantaged in the development of agriculture by the natural occurrence of domesticable wild grass species and the east–west orientation of the landmass, allowing for the easy spread of domesticated crops.[14] A similar advantage was given to it by half of the world's large mammal species living there, which could be domesticated.[15]

As the cooling and drying of the climate by 3800 BCE caused drought in Mesopotamia, village farmers began co-operating and started creating larger settlements with irrigation systems.[16] This new water infrastructure in turn required centralised administration with complex social organisation.[16] However, there is archaeological evidence that shows similar successes with more egalitarian and decentralized complex societies.[17] The first cities and systems of greater social organisation emerged in Mesopotamia, followed within a few centuries by ones at the Indus and Yellow River Valleys.[18] In the cities, the workforce could specialise as the whole population did not have to work for food production, while stored food allowed for large armies to create empires.[18] The first empires were those of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.[9] Smaller kingdoms existed in North China Plain, Indo-Gangetic Plain, Central Asia, Anatolia, Eastern Mediterranean, and Central America, while the rest of humanity continued to live in small tribes.[9]

Middle East and the Mediterranean

See also:
Ancient Mediterranean
Overview map of the ancient Near East

The first states of sorts were those of

Nile River in the north-east of Africa, the kingdom's boundaries being based around the Nile and stretching to areas where oases existed.[20] Upper and Lower Egypt were unified around 3150 BCE by Pharaoh Menes.[21] This process of consolidation was driven by the crowding of migrants from the expanding Sahara in the Nile Delta.[22] Nevertheless, political competition continued within the country between centers of power such as Memphis and Thebes.[21] The prevailing north-east trade winds made it easier to sail up the river, thereby helping the unification of the state.[22] The geopolitical environment of the Egyptians had them surrounded by Nubia in the smaller southern oases of the Nile unreachable by boat, as well as by Libyan warlords operating from the oases around modern-day Benghazi, and finally by raiders across the Sinai and the sea.[23] The country was well defended by natural barriers formed by the Sahara on both sides, though this also limited its ability to expand into a larger empire, mostly remaining a regional power along the Nile (except for a conquest of the Levant in the second millennium BCE).[22] The lack of timber also made it too expensive to build a large navy for power projection across the Mediterranean or Red Seas.[18]

Mesopotamian dominance

Main articles: History of Mesopotamia and Fertile Crescent

Mesopotamia is situated between the major rivers of Tigris and Euphrates, and the first political power in the region was the Akkadian Empire starting around 2300 BCE.[24] They were preceded by Sumer, and later followed by Babylon, and Assyria. They faced competition from the mountainous areas to the north, strategically positioned above the Mesopotamian plains, with kingdoms such as Mitanni, Urartu, Elam, and Medes.[24] The Mesopotamians also innovated in governance by writing the first laws.[24]

A dry climate in the Iron Age caused turmoil as movements of people put pressure on the existing states resulting in the Late Bronze Age collapse, with Cimmerians, Arameans, Dorians, and the Sea Peoples migrating among others.[25] Babylon never recovered following the death of Hammurabi in 1699 BCE.[25] Following this, Assyria grew in power under Adad-nirari II.[26] By the late ninth century BCE, the Assyrian Empire controlled almost all of Mesopotamia and much of the Levant and Anatolia.[27] Meanwhile, Egypt was weakened, eventually breaking apart after the death of Osorkon II until 710 BCE.[28] In 853, the Assyrians fought and won a battle against a coalition of Babylon, Egypt, Persia, Israel, Aram, and ten other nations, with over 60,000 troops taking part according to contemporary sources.[29] However, the empire was weakened by internal struggles for power, and was plunged into a decade of turmoil beginning with a plague in 763 BCE.[29] Following revolts by cities and lesser kingdoms against the empire, a coup d'état was staged in 745 by Tiglath-Pileser III.[30] He raised the army from 44,000 to 72,000, followed by his successor Sennacherib who raised it to 208,000, and finally by Ashurbanipal who raised an army of over 300,000.[31] This allowed the empire to spread over Cyprus, the entire Levant, Phrygia, Urartu, Cimmerians, Persia, Medes, Elam, and Babylon.[31]

Persian dominance

Main article: Achaemenid Empire

By 650, Assyria had started declining as a severe drought hit the Middle East and an alliance was formed against them.

Persian Empire.[34] After first serving as vassals, under the third Persian king Cambyses I their influence rose, and in 553 they rose against the Medians.[34] By the death of Cyrus the Great, the Persian Achaemenid Empire reached from Aegean Sea to Indus River and Caucasus to Nubia.[35] The empire was divided into provinces ruled by satraps, who collected taxes and were typically local power brokers.[36] The empire controlled about a third of the world's farm land and a quarter of its population.[37] In 522, after King Cambyses II's death, Darius the Great took over power.[38]

Greek dominance

Main article: Ancient Greece

As the population of Ancient Greece grew, they began a colonization of the Mediterranean region.[39] This encouraged trade, which in turn caused political changes in the city-states with old elites being overthrown in Corinth in 657 and in Athens in 632, for example.[40] There were many wars between the cities as well, including the Messenian Wars (743–742; 685–668), the Lelantine War (710–650), and the First Sacred War (595–585).[40] In the seventh and sixth centuries, Corinth and Sparta were the dominant powers of Greece.[41] The former was eventually supplanted by Athens as the main sea power, while Sparta remained the dominant land-force.[42] In 499, in the Ionian Revolt Greek cities in Asia Minor rebelled against the Persian Empire but were crushed in the Battle of Lade.[43] After this, the Persians invaded the Greek mainland in the Greco-Persian Wars (499–449).[43]

The

Attalid dynasty in Anatolia, the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt, and the Seleucid Empire over Mesopotamia.[47]

Roman dominance

Main article: Ancient Rome

The

Roman republican army beat him and then sent troops against Carthage itself, defeating it in 202.[51] The Second Punic War alone cost Rome 100,000 casualties.[52] In 146, Carthage was finally destroyed completely at the end of the Third Punic War.[53]

Rome suffered from various internal disturbances and instabilities. In 133,

Caesar's Civil War (49–46), Julius Caesar and Pompey fought over the empire, with the former winning.[56] After the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44, a second civil war broke out between his potential heirs, Mark Antony and Augustus, the latter gaining the new title of Roman emperor.[56] This then led to the Pax Romana, a long period of peace in the Roman Empire.[57] The quarrels between the Ptolemaic Kingdom, the Seleucid Empire, the Parthian Empire and the Kingdom of Pontus in the Near East allowed the Romans to expand up to the Euphrates.[44] During Augustus' reign the Rhine, Danube, and the Sahara became the other borders of the empire.[58] The population reached about 60 million.[59]

Political instability in Rome grew. Emperor Caligula (37–41) was murdered by the Praetorian Guard to replace him with Claudius (41–53), while his successor Nero (54–68) was rumored to have burned Rome down.[60] The average reign from his death to Philip the Arab (244–249) was six years.[60] Nevertheless, external expansion continued, with Trajan (98–117) invading Dacia, Parthia and Arabia.[61] Its only formidable enemy was the Parthian Empire.[62] Migrating peoples started exerting pressure on the borders of the empire in the Migration Period.[63] The drying climate of Central Asia forced the Huns to move, and in 370 they crossed Don and soon after the Danube, forcing the Goths on the move, which in turn caused other Germanic tribes to overrun Roman borders.[64] In 293, Diocletian (284–305) appointed three rulers for different parts of the empire.[65] It was formally divided in 395 by Theodosius I (379–395) into the Western Roman and Byzantine Empires.[66] In 406 the northern border of the former was overrun by the Alemanni, Vandals and Suebi.[67] In 408 the Visigoths invaded Italy and then sacked Rome in 410.[67] The final collapse of the Western Empire came in 476 with the deposal of Romulus Augustulus (475–476).[68]

Indian subcontinent

See also: Middle kingdoms of India

Built around the

Indus Valley civilization, located in modern-day India, Pakistan and Afghanistan, had formed. The civilization's boundaries extended to 600 km from the Arabian Sea.[69] After its cities Mohenjo-daro and Harappa were abandoned around 1900 BCE, no political power is known to have replaced it.[70]

States began to form in 12th century BCE with the formation of

Avanti, with Magadha dominating the rest by the mid-fifth century.[72] The Magadha then transformed into the Nanda Empire under Mahapadma Nanda (345–321), extending from the Gangetic plains to the Hindu Kush and the Deccan Plateau.[73] The empire was, however, overtaken by Chandragupta Maurya (324–298), turning it into the Maurya Empire.[73] He defended against Alexander's invasion from the West and received control of the Hindu Kush mountain passes in a peace treaty signed in 303.[73] By the time of his grandson Ashoka's rule, the empire stretched from Zagros Mountains to the Brahmaputra River.[74] The empire contained a population of 50 to 60 million, governed by a system of provinces ruled by governor-princes, with a capital in Pataliputra.[75]

After Ashoka's death, the empire had begun to decline, with Kashmir in the north, Shunga and Satavahana in the centre, and Kalinga as well as Pandya in the south becoming independent.[76] In to this power vacuum, the Yuezhi were able to establish the new Kushan Empire in 30 CE.[77] The Gupta Empire was founded by Chandragupta I (320–335), which in sixty years expanded from the Ganges to the Bay of Bengal and the Indus River following the downfall of the Kushan Empire.[78] Gupta governance was similar to that of the Maurya.[79] Following wars with the Hephthalites and other problems, the empire fell by 550.[80]

Qin dynasty.

China

See also:
Ancient China

In the North China Plain, the Yellow River allowed the rise of states such as Wei and Qi.[81] This area was first unified by the Shang dynasty around 1600 BCE, and replaced by the Zhou dynasty in the Battle of Muye in 1046 BCE, with reportedly millions taking part in the fighting.[81] The victors were however hit by internal unrest soon after.[82] The main rivals of the Zhou were the Dongyi in Shandong, the Xianyun in Ordos, the Guifang in Shanxi, as well as the Chu in the middle reaches of the Yangtze.[83]

Beginning in the eighth century BCE China fell into chaos for five centuries during the Spring and Autumn (771–476) and Warring States periods (476–221).[84] During the latter period, the Jin dynasty split into the Wei, Zhao and Han states, while the rest of the North China Plain was composed of the Chu, Qin, Qi and Yan states, while the Zhou remained in the centre with largely ceremonial power.[85] While the Zhao had an advantage at first, the Qin ended up defeating them in 260 with about half a million soldiers fighting on each side at the Battle of Changping.[86] The other states tried to form an alliance against the Qin but were defeated.[87] In 221, the Qin dynasty was established with a population of about 40 million, with a capital of 350,000 in Linzi.[88] Under the leadership of Qin Shi Huang, the dynasty initiated reforms such as establishing territorial administrative units, infrastructure projects (including the Great Wall of China) and uniform Chinese characters.[89] However, after his death and burial with the Terracotta Army, the empire started falling apart when the Chu and Han started fighting over a power vacuum left by a weak heir, with the Han dynasty rising to power in 204 BCE.[90]

Under the Han, the population of China rose to 50 million, with 400,000 in the capital

rebellion of the Five Barbarians (304–316). Northern China and Sichuan were ruled by the Sixteen Kingdoms, while the Jin relocated south of the Yangtze River. By 439, the Xianbei-led Northern Wei unified the north while the Jin was usurped by the Liu Song, transitioning into the Northern and Southern dynasties period. China would be unified by the Sui dynasty in 589 CE.[94]

Americas

See also: Pre-Columbian era

The Olmecs were the first major Indigenous American culture, with some smaller ones such as the Chavín culture amongst mainly hunter-gatherers.[95] The Olmecs were limited by the dense forests and the long rainy season of the Olmec heartland, as well as the lack of horses.[96]

Post-classical era

Main article: Post-classical history

Africa

The coast of East Africa contained a string of trading cities connected to kingdoms in the interior.[97] The Horn of Africa was dominated by the Ethiopian Empire by the 13th and 14th centuries.[97] South from it were the Swahili cities of Mogadishu, Mombasa, Zanzibar, Kilwa, and Sofala.[98] By the 14th century, Kilwa had conquered most of the others.[98] It also engaged in campaigns against the inland power of Great Zimbabwe.[98] Great Zimbabwe was itself overtaken in trade by its rival, the Kingdom of Mutapa.[98] Towards the north, the Empire of Kitara dominated the African Great Lakes in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.[99] Towards the Atlantic coast, the Kingdom of Kongo was of regional importance around the same time.[99] The Gulf of Guinea had the Kingdom of Benin.[99] To the north, in the Sahel, there was a tripartite competition between the Mossi Kingdoms, the Songhai Empire, as well as the Mali Empire, with the latter declining in the fifteenth century.[100]

Americas

The

Qullaw. They were developed between 1150 and 1477, before the kingdoms disappeared due to the military conquest of the Inca Empire
.

Beginning around 250 AD, the

internecine warfare, the abandonment of cities, and a northward shift of population. The Postclassic period saw the rise of Chichen Itza in the north, and the expansion of the aggressive Kʼicheʼ kingdom in the Guatemalan Highlands. In the 16th century, the Spanish Empire colonised the Mesoamerican region, and a lengthy series of campaigns saw the fall of Nojpetén
, the last Maya city, in 1697.

The

Tarascan state was the second-largest state in Mesoamerica at the time.[103]
It was founded in the early 14th century.

Asia

The Tang dynasty in 700 CE

When

Chao K'uang, although the borders of this country expanded, they were never as large as those of the Tang dynasty and were constantly being redefined due to attacks from the neighboring Tartar (Mongol) people known as the Khitan tribes.[109]

The

invading armies in every direction.[110][111] The vast transcontinental empire connected the East with the West, the Pacific to the Mediterranean, in an enforced Pax Mongolica, allowing the dissemination and exchange of trade, technologies, commodities and ideologies across Eurasia.[112][113] The Mongol invasion halted China's economic development for over 150 years, decisively changing the balance of power in the Eastern Hemisphere.[114]

The empire began to split due to wars over succession, as the grandchildren of Genghis Khan disputed whether the royal line should follow from his son and initial heir

Chagatayid and Ögedeid families. By the time of Kublai's death in 1294 the Mongol Empire had fractured into four separate khanates or empires, each pursuing its own separate interests and objectives: the Golden Horde khanate in the northwest, the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia, the Ilkhanate in the southwest, and the Yuan dynasty in the east, based in modern-day Beijing.[117]

In 1304, the three western khanates briefly accepted the nominal

Grand Duchy of Moscow
while the Chagatai Khanate lasted in one form or another until 1687.

Middle East and Europe

Main articles: Islamic Golden Age and Middle Ages

The Byzantine–Sasanian Wars of 572–591 and 602–628 produced the cumulative effects of a century of almost continuous conflict, leaving both empires crippled. When Kavadh II died only months after coming to the throne, the Sasanian Empire was plunged into several years of dynastic turmoil and civil war. The Sasanians were further weakened by economic decline, heavy taxation from Khosrau II's campaigns, religious unrest, and the increasing power of the provincial landholders.[122] The Byzantine Empire was also severely affected, with its financial reserves exhausted by the war and the Balkans now largely in the hands of the Slavs.[123] Additionally, Anatolia was devastated by repeated Persian invasions; the Empire's hold on its recently regained territories in the Caucasus, Syria, Mesopotamia, Palestine and Egypt was loosened by many years of Persian occupation.[124] Neither empire was given any chance to recover, and according to George Liska, the "unnecessarily prolonged Byzantine–Persian conflict opened the way for Islam".[125]

The

Umayyad conquest of Hispania began, and in 717 they crossed the Pyrenees into the European Plain.[132] They were met by the Merovingian dynasty, which had been established by Clovis I (481–511), which was in decline, leading Charles Martel to seize power and defeat the invasion force at the Battle of Tours in 732.[132] His son Pepin the Short established the Carolingian dynasty in 751.[132] Charlemagne (768–814) turned it into the Carolingian Empire, being crowned Emperor of the Romans in 800 by the Pope, with this forming the basis for the later Holy Roman Empire.[133] Meanwhile, in Eastern Europe, Krum (795–814) expanded the Bulgarian Empire.[134] The Treaty of Verdun divided Carolingian Empire into West, Middle and East Francia.[135]

During the

Dnieper and Volga trade routes in eastern Europe, where they were also known as Varangians. They also briefly settled in Newfoundland, becoming the first Europeans to reach North America. The Vikings founded several kingdoms and earldoms in Europe: the kingdom of the Isles (Suðreyjar), Orkney (Norðreyjar), York (Jórvík) and the Danelaw (Danalǫg), Dublin (Dyflin), Normandy, and Kievan Rus' (Garðaríki). The Norse homelands were also unified into larger kingdoms during the Viking Age, and the short-lived North Sea Empire
included large swathes of Scandinavia and Britain.

In 1095,

Byzantine Emperor Alexios I against the Seljuk Turks and an armed pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Across all social strata in western Europe there was an enthusiastic popular response. Volunteers took a public vow to join the crusade. Historians now debate the combination of their motivations, which included the prospect of mass ascension into Heaven at Jerusalem, satisfying feudal obligations, opportunities for renown, and economic and political advantage. Initial successes established four Crusader states in the Near East: the County of Edessa; the Principality of Antioch; the Kingdom of Jerusalem; and the County of Tripoli. The crusader presence remained in the region in some form until the city of Acre fell in 1291, leading to the rapid loss of all remaining territory in the Levant. After this, there were no further crusades
to recover the Holy Land.

Following the end of the

Siege of Baghdad pushed the Islamic world into disarray.[144]

The Seljuk dynasty was founded by Osman I (1200–1323), leading to the Ottoman Empire.[145] In 1345, the Ottomans entered Europe across the Dardanelles, conquering Thessaloniki in 1387, and advancing to Kosovo by 1389.[146] The Fall of Constantinople followed in 1453.[146] The Fall of Constantinople marked the end of the Byzantine Empire, and effectively the end of the Roman Empire, a state which dated back to 27 BC and lasted nearly 1,500 years. The conquest of Constantinople and the fall of the Byzantine Empire was a key event of the Late Middle Ages and is considered the end of the Medieval period.

Indian subcontinent

Indian politics revolved around the struggle between the Buddhist

Rashtrakuta dynasty, as well as the Islamic caliphate.[147] The Pala Empire had risen around 750 in Bengal under Gopala I, while the Rashtrakutas had emerged around the same time in the Deccan Plateau and the southern coast under Dantidurga.[148] The Pratiharas first united the Indo-Gangetic Plain under Nagabhata I (c. 730–760), who has defeated an Islamic invasion of northern India.[148] The struggle between the four lasted for almost 200 years.[149] By the ninth century, the Ghaznavids, a breakaway from the caliphate, arose after taking advantage of the others' internal weaknesses.[149]

The

Qutb al-Din Aibak founded the Delhi Sultanate.[152] By the 14th century, it controlled the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the Deccan Plateau.[152] In the middle of the century, the latter saw the rise of the Vijayanagara Empire, which ruled much of southern India as a federation.[153] The Sultanate and the Empire engaged in continuous warfare without either being able to defeat the other.[153]

Early modern era

Main article:
Early modern era

Americas

Main article: European colonization of the Americas

Beginning with the 1492 arrival of

Caribbean Islands, half of South America, most of Central America and much of North America. The major empires of the American continents were defeated by much smaller Spanish forces. The Aztec Empire under Moctezuma II had 200,000 troops under its command, but was defeated by little over 600 conquistadors.[154] The Inca Empire under Atahualpa with 60,000 soldiers was defeated by 168 Spaniards, meanwhile.[154] In both cases, the Spanish used deception to capture the heads of state.[154]

Following an earlier expedition to

Aztec Empire. The fall of Tenochtitlan marks the beginning of Spanish rule in central Mexico, and they established their capital of Mexico City
on the ruins of Tenochtitlan.

After years of preliminary exploration and military skirmishes, 168 Spanish soldiers under conquistador Francisco Pizarro, his brothers, and their indigenous allies captured the Sapa Inca Atahualpa in the 1532 Battle of Cajamarca. It was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory in 1572 and colonization of the region as the Viceroyalty of Peru.

The

a clear frontier
between the Spanish domains and the land of the independent Mapuche.

Asia

Gunpowder empires

Main article: Gunpowder empires
The gunpowder empires

The gunpowder empires were the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires as they flourished from the 16th century to the 18th century. These three empires were among the strongest and most stable economies of the early modern period, leading to commercial expansion, and greater patronage of culture, while their political and legal institutions were consolidated with an increasing degree of centralisation. The empires underwent a significant increase in per capita income and population, and a sustained pace of technological innovation. They stretched from Central Europe and North Africa in the west to between today's modern Bangladesh and Myanmar in the east.

Under Sultan

32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy over the course of centuries.[note 1]

However, the Ottomans began to face many challenges. The failure to conquer the Safavid Empire forced it to keep forces in the east, while the expansion of the Russian Empire put pressure on the Black Sea territories.[160] Meanwhile, Western powers began to overtake their maritime capabilities, with the Battle of Lepanto (1571) being a turning point.[160] In 1683, the Battle of Vienna halted an Ottoman invasion again, with the Christian Holy League driving the Empire back into the Balkans.[160] Despite the Venetian reconquest of Morea (Peloponnese) in the 1680s and it was recovered in 1715, while the island of Corfu under Venetian rule remained the only Greek island not conquered by the Ottomans. The Ottoman Empire still remained the largest power in the Mediterranean and the Middle East.[161]

The Safavid dynasty ruled Persia from 1501 to 1722 (experiencing a brief restoration from 1729 to 1736). It ruled from the Black Sea to the Hindu Kush, with more than 50 million inhabitants.[161] Originating from Caucasian warriors called the Qizilbash, they conquered Armenia in 1501, most of Persia by 1504, parts of Uzbekistan in 1511, and unsuccessfully fighting over Caucasus and Mesopotamia until 1555.[162] However, Baghdad was recaptured in 1623.[162] The expansion of Russia in the north eventually started to pose a threat.[163] The Empire was finally defeated by and divided between the Ottomans and the Russians in 1722–23.[164]

The

Deccan plateau in South India.[166] In 1505, Central Asian invaders had entered the Indo-Gangetic Plain and established the Empire under Akbar (1556–1605).[164] The neglect of northern defences allowed the Persians under Nader Shah to invade in 1739, with the capital Delhi sacked.[167]

East Asia

Under the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), China's population and economy grew.[168] While the Portuguese Empire was at first successfully kept out, Japanese pirates began to attack the coast, forcing co-operation with the Portuguese who established a trading settlement at Macau in 1554.[169] Northern Mongol and Jurchen people established a coalition to invade the country, reaching Beijing in 1550.[169] In 1592, the Japanese invaded Korea, while rebellions emerged in China.[170]

Europe

Silesia's position in Europe (in red)

In 1700,

Treaty of Utrecht was signed in 1714.[171]

Less than 50 years later, in 1740, war broke out again, sparked by the invasion of Silesia, part of Austria, by King Frederick the Great of Prussia. The British Empire, the Dutch Republic, and the Kingdom of Hungary supported Maria Theresa. Over the next eight years, these and other states participated in the War of the Austrian Succession, until a treaty was signed, allowing Prussia to keep Silesia.[172][173] The Seven Years' War began when Theresa dissolved her alliance with Britain and allied with France and Russia. In 1763, Britain won the war, claiming Canada and land east of the Mississippi. Prussia also kept Silesia.[174]

Oceania

Main article: History of Oceania
Van Diemen's Land in 1852

Interest in the geography of the

non-commercial settlements by the Scottish in the 1820s and 1830s.[180]

Modern era

Main article: Modern era

Revolutionary waves

Main article: Age of Revolution

The

Norwegian War of Independence (1814). There were smaller upheavals in Switzerland, Russia, and Brazil. The revolutionaries in each country knew of the others and to some degree were inspired by or emulated them.[181]

The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of sweeping military conflicts lasting from 1792 until 1802 and resulting from the French Revolution. They pitted France against Great Britain, the Holy Roman Empire, Prussia, Russia, and several other monarchies. They are divided in two periods: the War of the First Coalition (1792–97) and the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802). Initially confined to Europe, the fighting gradually assumed a global dimension. After a decade of constant warfare and aggressive diplomacy, France had conquered territories in the Italian Peninsula, the Low Countries and the Rhineland in Europe and was retroceded Louisiana in North America. French success in these conflicts ensured the spread of revolutionary principles over much of Europe.

The French colonial empire was the second largest empire in the world behind the British Empire

The

First Consul of France and in the view of most historians ended the French Revolution. The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of major conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European powers formed into various coalitions. It produced a brief period of French domination over most of continental Europe. The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the French Revolution and its resultant conflict. The wars are often categorised into five conflicts, each termed after the coalition that fought Napoleon: the Third Coalition (1805), the Fourth (1806–07), the Fifth (1809), the Sixth (1813–14), and the Seventh
(1815).

The

Brazilian Empire
.

Greater Poland uprising, March Unrest, Revolutions in the Austrian Empire, Praieira revolt, Revolution in Luxembourg, Moldavian Revolution, Wallachian Revolution, Chartism, and the Young Ireland rebellion
.

Great power competition

Inspired by the rebellions in the 1820s and 1830s against the outcome of the

Italian unification process was precipitated by the revolutions of 1848. It reached completion in 1871, when the Papal States were captured and Rome was officially designated the capital of the Kingdom of Italy.[182][183] After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, Prussia, under Otto von Bismarck, brought together almost all the German states (excluding the Austrian Empire, Luxembourg, and Liechtenstein) into a new German Empire. Bismarck's new empire became the most powerful state in Continental Europe until 1914.[184][185] Meanwhile, Britain had entered an era of "splendid isolation", avoiding entanglements that had led it into the Crimean War in 1854–1856. It concentrated on internal industrial development and political reform, and building up its great international holdings, the British Empire, while maintaining by far the world's strongest Navy
to protect its island home and its many overseas possessions.

Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913

The

African continent being partitioned without wars between European nations. As late as the 1870s, Europeans controlled approximately 10% of the African continent, with all their territories located near the coasts. The most important holdings were Angola and Mozambique, held by Portugal; the Cape Colony, held by Great Britain; and Algeria, held by France. By 1914, only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent of European control, with the latter having strong connections to the United States.[186]

In the Spanish–American War of 1898, the United States intervened in the Cuban War of Independence, leading it to emerge as the predominant power in the Caribbean region,[187] and resulting in U.S. acquisition of Spain's Pacific possessions. It also led to United States involvement in the Philippine Revolution and later to the Philippine–American War. The Banana Wars were a series of conflicts that consisted of military occupation, police action, and intervention by the United States in Central America and the Caribbean following the end of the Spanish–American War in 1898, after which the United States proceeded to conduct military interventions in Cuba, Panama, Nicaragua, Mexico, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic.

World wars

World War I and aftermath

Main articles: World War I and Interwar period

World War I saw the continent of Europe split into two major opposing alliances; the

Kaiser Wilhelm abdicated on 9 November and Germany signed an armistice on 11 November 1918
, ending the war.

The

Arab States of the Persian Gulf
.

The

Hungarian Revolution, and the Biennio Rosso in Italy, in addition to various smaller uprisings, protests and strikes, all of which proved abortive. The Bolsheviks sought to coordinate this new wave of revolution in the Soviet-led Comintern
.

The rise of fascism

The conditions of economic hardship caused by the

en masse
in Paris against the French government resulting in major political violence.

Integralists marching in Brazil

In the Americas, the Brazilian Integralists led by Plínio Salgado claimed as many as 200,000 members although following coup attempts it faced a crackdown from the Estado Novo of Getúlio Vargas in 1937. In the 1930s, the National Socialist Movement of Chile gained seats in Chile's parliament and attempted a coup d'état that resulted in the Seguro Obrero massacre of 1938.

World War II

Main article: World War II

World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when

Balkans, the aerial Battle of Britain, the Blitz of the UK, and the Battle of the Atlantic. On 22 June 1941, Germany led the European Axis powers in an invasion of the Soviet Union, opening the Eastern Front, the largest land theatre of war in history and trapping the Axis powers, crucially the German Wehrmacht, in a war of attrition
.

Japan, which aimed to

offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific, including an attack on the US fleet at Pearl Harbor which forced the US to declare war against Japan; the European Axis powers declared war on the US in solidarity. Japan soon captured much of the western Pacific, but its advances were halted in 1942 after losing the critical Battle of Midway; later, Germany and Italy were defeated in North Africa and at the Battle of Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. Key setbacks in 1943—including a series of German defeats on the Eastern Front, the Allied invasions of Sicily and the Italian mainland, and Allied offensives in the Pacific—cost the Axis powers their initiative and forced it into strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained its territorial losses and turned towards Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945, Japan suffered reversals in mainland Asia, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy
and captured key western Pacific islands.

The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories, and the invasion of Germany by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, culminating in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops, Hitler's suicide and the German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945. Following the Potsdam Declaration by the Allies on 26 July 1945 and the refusal of Japan to surrender on its terms, the United States dropped the first atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima, on 6 August, and Nagasaki, on 9 August. Faced with an imminent invasion of the Japanese archipelago, the possibility of additional atomic bombings, and the Soviet entry into the war against Japan and its invasion of Manchuria, Japan announced its intention to surrender on 15 August, then signed the surrender document on 2 September 1945, cementing total victory in Asia for the Allies.

World War II changed the political alignment and social structure of the globe. The United Nations (UN) was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts, and the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States—became the permanent members of its Security Council. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the nearly half-century-long Cold War. In the wake of European devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and Asia. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion. Political integration, especially in Europe, began as an effort to forestall future hostilities, end pre-war enmities and forge a sense of common identity.

Cold War

Main article: Cold War

The

authoritarian states, most of which were their former colonies.[189][A] The Eastern Bloc was led by the Soviet Union and its Communist Party, which had an influence across the Second World. The US government supported right-wing governments and uprisings across the world, while the Soviet government funded communist parties and revolutions around the world. As nearly all the colonial states achieved independence in the period 1945–1960, they became Third World
battlefields in the Cold War.

Early Cold War and decolonization

The first phase of the Cold War began shortly after the end of the Second World War in 1945. The United States and its allies created the NATO military alliance in 1949 in the apprehension of a Soviet attack and termed their global policy against Soviet influence containment. The Soviet Union formed the Warsaw Pact in 1955 in response to NATO. Major crises of this phase included the 1948–49 Berlin Blockade, the 1927–1949 Chinese Civil War, the 1950–1953 Korean War, the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, the 1956 Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961 and the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. The US and the USSR competed for influence in Latin America, the Middle East, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia
.

Détente and the Third World

Following the

People's Republic of China as a strategic counterweight to the USSR. A number of self-proclaimed Marxist regimes were formed in the second half of the 1970s in the Third World, including Angola, Mozambique, Ethiopia, Cambodia, Afghanistan and Nicaragua
.

End of the Cold War

Détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s was another period of elevated tension. The United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when it was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the liberalizing reforms of glasnost ("openness", c. 1985) and perestroika ("reorganization", 1987) and ended Soviet involvement in Afghanistan. Pressures for national sovereignty grew stronger in Eastern Europe, and Gorbachev refused to militarily support their governments any longer.

In 1989, the fall of the

abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the formal dissolution of the USSR in December 1991, the declaration of independence of its constituent republics
and the collapse of communist governments across much of Africa and Asia. The United States was left as the world's only superpower.

Post-Cold War era

Main article: Post–Cold War era

1990s

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, many

South Ossetia War (1991–1992), War in Abkhazia (1992–1993), and in the First Chechen War (1994–1996). Civil conflicts over power within the new states were fought in Georgia (1991–1993), in Tajikistan (1992–1997), and in Russia in 1993. Czechoslovakia broke apart peacefully in 1993, while the breakup of Yugoslavia starting in 1990 led to the bitter inter-ethnic Yugoslav Wars
of the rest of the decade.

Following the end of the global competition between real socialism and market democracies, many Third Way politicians emerged. In the United States, a leading proponent of this was 42nd President Bill Clinton, who was in office from 1993 to 2001.[190] In the United Kingdom, Third Way social-democratic proponent Tony Blair claimed that the socialism he advocated was different from traditional conceptions of socialism and said: "My kind of socialism is a set of values based around notions of social justice. [...] Socialism as a rigid form of economic determinism has ended, and rightly".[191]

Following

Single European Market (created the previous year) without joining the Union. The Schengen Agreement
later came into effect on 26 March 1995.

Between 7 April and 15 July 1994, during the Rwandan Civil War, the Rwandan genocide occurred. During this period of around 100 days, members of the Tutsi minority ethnic group, as well as some moderate Hutu and Twa, were killed by armed militias. The most widely accepted scholarly estimates are around 500,000 to 662,000 Tutsi deaths.[194][195] The genocide had lasting and profound effects. In 1996, the RPF-led Rwandan government launched an offensive into Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo), home to exiled leaders of the former Rwandan government and many Hutu refugees, starting the First Congo War and killing an estimated 200,000 people. The subsequent Second Congo War began in August 1998, little more than a year after the First Congo War, and involved some of the same issues, with nine African countries and around twenty-five armed groups involved in the war.[196]

Under

New Belgrade, killing three Chinese journalists and outraging the Chinese public.[198]

Operation Shakti), Pakistan detonated five nuclear devices during operation Chagai-I, becoming the seventh country in the world to successfully develop and test nuclear weapons.[199] The Kargil War was an armed conflict fought between India and Pakistan from May to July 1999 in the Kargil district of Jammu and Kashmir and elsewhere along the Line of Control (LoC). The 1999 Pakistani coup d'état was a bloodless coup initiated by General Pervez Musharraf, who overthrew the publicly elected Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif
on 12 October 1999.

2000s

Following the

its contribution to the War on Terror.[201][202][203]

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's Bulldozer Revolution (2000), Georgia's Rose Revolution (2003), Ukraine's Orange Revolution (2004), and Kyrgyzstan's Tulip Revolution (2005). The Russo-Georgian War place in August 2008 following a period of worsening relations
between the two countries.

In the 2000s, there was an active movement towards further consolidation of the

expansion of the European Union (EU), in terms of territory, number of states, and population took place on 1 May 2004 with the simultaneous accessions of Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Seven of these were part of the former Eastern Bloc. Part of the same wave of enlargement was also the accession of Bulgaria and Romania in 2007
.

Harmonious Socialist Society". Under his leadership, the authorities also cracked down on social disturbances, ethnic minority protests, and dissident figures which also led to many controversial events such as the unrest in Tibet and the passing of the Anti-Secession Law. In foreign policy, Hu advocated for "China's peaceful development", pursuing soft power
in international relations and a corporate approach to diplomacy. Throughout Hu's tenure, China's influence in Africa, Latin America, and other developing regions increased.

In

authoritarian.[212][214]

2010s

The

following civil war.[221] Some referred to the succeeding conflicts as the Arab Winter.[217][218][219] Amont the effects of the conflicts were the 2015 European migrant crisis
.

The handling of the

political parties in European and other Western countries during the 2010s, often accompanied by the rise of nationalist, left-wing and right-wing populist alternatives.[223][224] In Europe, the share of votes for such parties was at its 70-year lowest in 2015.[225] Populist and far-right political parties in turn proved very successful throughout Europe in the late-2010s. The 2017 French presidential election caused a radical shift in French politics, as the prevailing parties of The Republicans and Socialists failed to make it to the second round of voting, with far-right Marine Le Pen and political newcomer Emmanuel Macron instead facing each other.[226]

On 22 February 2014, Ukrainian president

War in Donbas against Ukraine.[227]

In the United Kingdom, as part of a campaign pledge to win votes from

nationalist
.

In Asia, neo-nationalism spread successfully as well.

PDP-Laban adopted Filipino nationalism as a platform as well.[234]

The

2018–19 Haitian protests, 2019 Ecuadorian protests and the 2021 Colombian protests.[236][237] A resurgence of the pink tide, however, was kicked off by Mexico
in 2018 and Argentina in 2019.

2020s

In 2022,

Vladimir Saldo the new regional administrator for Kherson Oblast.[239]

In 2023, following the Hamas attack on Israel, Israel began a counter invasion of the Gaza Strip to unseat and remove Hamas from political power and military control of the Gaza Strip.[240][241][242] Near the end of 2023, Israel captured the city of Beit Hanoun and removed Hamas from power in the city.[243][244] However, a week later, the Israeli military withdrew from the city, allowing Hamas to regain control militarily and politically.[245]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ "Where did banana republics get their name?" The Economist, 21 November 2013
  1. declaration by the Sultan of Aceh in 1565, or through temporary acquisitions of islands such as Lanzarote in the Atlantic Ocean in 1585, Turkish Navy Official Website: "Atlantik'te Türk Denizciliği"

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