Political systems of Imperial China
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The political systems of Imperial China can be divided into a state administrative body, provincial administrations, and a system for official selection. The three notable tendencies in the history of Chinese politics includes, the convergence of unity, the capital priority of absolute monarchy, and the standardization of official selection.[1] Moreover, there were early supervisory systems that were originated by local factions, as well as other political systems worthy of mention.
Fundamental System: Autocratic Monarchy
Principles and Foundation
During the Warring States period, the ancient Chinese text Han Feizi proposed the establishment of the first all-encompassing autocratic monarchy for the future of the state.[2] During the same time period, Shang Yang from the state of Qin would enact political reforms into practice.[3] The imperial system would eventually be constituted by the time of the establishment of the Qin, which would introduce the system of Three Lords and Nine Ministers as well as fostering the system of prefectures and counties. Units of measurements, currency, and writing would be standardized, books and scholars of the previous regime burned and buried to keep ideological integrity, and officials were to act as faculties of the law .[4]
Consolidation and reinforcement
In resolute action to settle domestic concerns,
Further development and final shape
In the central government, the executive system of central officials was improved during
Central political system
Three Lords and Nine Ministers system
The three lords and nine ministers system was a central administrative system adopted in ancient China that was officially instituted in Qin dynasty and later developed in Han dynasty.[10]
- the Chancellor
- the Imperial Secretary
- the Grand Commandant
Nine Ministers comprised all the ministers of importance in the central government. They were:[12]
- the Minister of Ceremonies
- the Supervisor of Attendants
- the Commandant of Guards
- the Minister of Coachmen
- the Commandant of Justice
- the Grand Herald
- the Director of the Imperial Clan
- the Grand Minister of Agriculture
- the Small Treasurer
Three departments and six ministries system
The three lords and nine ministers system was replaced by the system of three provinces and six ministries by Emperor Wen of the Sui dynasty.[13] The three departments were Shangshu, Zhongshu and Menxia. The central committee was responsible for drafting and issuing imperial edicts; Subordinate provinces shall be responsible for the examination and verification of administrative decrees; Shangshu was responsible for carrying out important state decrees, and the heads of the three provinces were all prime ministers. The six ministries were officials, households, rites, soldiers, punishments, and workers. The three provinces and six ministries had both divisions of labor and cooperation, and they supervised and contained each other, thus forming a strict and complete system of the feudal bureaucracy, effectively improving administrative efficiency and strengthening the ruling power of the central government. The separation of the three powers weakens the power of the prime minister and strengthens the imperial power. The officially adopted systems of Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties all changed a little on this basis.[14]
Emperor (皇帝, huángdì) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
, Zhōngshūshěng) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
s 礼部, Lǐbù) | Ministry of War (兵部, Bīngbù) | Ministry of Justice (刑部, Xíngbù) | Ministry of Works (工部, Gōngbù) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Prime minister system
Local political systems
Enfeoffment system
To consolidate the power of slave owners, the rulers of the Western Zhou dynasty implemented the system of enfeoff vassals politically, which enabled the Zhou dynasty to consolidate its rule and expand its territory.[18] In the spring and autumn period, it gradually collapsed and was replaced by the system of prefectures and counties, which remained in some later dynasties.[19]
Prefecture and county system
During the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period, the Qin dynasty was carried out nationwide, thus replacing the feudal system nationwide, greatly weakening the independence of local authorities and strengthening the centralization of power. This was an epoch-making reform in China's local administrative system. The prefecture and county system was used for a long time in ancient China, with a very far-reaching influence.[20]
Province system
At the beginning of the
Administrative unit | Administrator title | Appointment | Authority |
---|---|---|---|
Province (州 zhou) | Governor (牧 mu) | Central | Executive |
Inspector (刺史 cishi) | Central | No direct authority | |
Commandery (郡 jun) | Grand administrator (太守 taishou) | Central | Executive |
Kingdom (王國 wangguo) | Chancellor (相 xiang) | Central | Executive |
King (王 wang) | Hereditary | Symbolic | |
County (縣 xian) | Prefect (令 ling) Chief (長 zhang) |
Central | Executive |
Monk system
In the Ming dynasty, Tibet practiced the system of monks and officials. Because the Tibetan people believed in Tibetan Buddhism, the Ming government used religion to rule the Tibetan people which was later called the 'monk system'.[22]
Eight banners system
The eight banners system was in the late Ming dynasty when
Bureaucratisation of Local Officers
During the reign of the Ming dynasty, in successive congruity with the Yuan dynasty, installed and enforced a provincial system in the southwest region, where residential officials received sponsorship from the central government. These residential officials, held by local factions, exercised their administration within their jurisdiction until the fall of the Great Ming.[25]
Official selection system
Evolution of Official Selection
The standard of Official Selection by familial history gradually developed to emphasize talent instead. This method would eventually progress to form the standard of public examinations, to which this mechanism of cultivating talent would be institutionalized, making examinations a notoriously rigorous process to accomplish.[27]
Degree | Ranks | Exam | Times held |
---|---|---|---|
Child student (Tongsheng) | County/Prefectural | Annual (February/April) | |
Student member (Shengyuan) | Granary student (1st class) Expanded student (2nd class) Attached student (3rd class) |
College | Triennial (twice) |
Recommended man (Juren) | Top escorted examinee (1st rank) | Provincial | Triennial |
Tribute scholar (Gongshi) | Top conference examinee (1st rank) | Metropolitan | Triennial |
Advanced scholar (Jinshi) | Top thesis author (1st rank) Eyes positioned alongside (2nd rank) Flower snatcher (3rd rank) |
Palace | Triennial |
Imperial supervision systems
Qin dynasty
The central government set up the imperial historian, whereas the local government set up the imperial supervisor.[28]
Western Han dynasty
Eastern Han dynasty
The supervision power of the provincial governor was further strengthened, and the local administrative power and military power were gradually increased. At the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, the provincial governor evolved into the local highest military and political officer.[29]
Northern Song dynasty
There was a general court to supervise the prefectures, which could report directly to the emperor.[28]
Ming dynasty
The local government set up the department of criminal investigation to administer local supervision and justice. In addition, the factory also set up a spying agency to monitor officials and civilians at all levels.[30]
Political systems created by local factions
Uniform land system, rent modulation, government military system, Fan-Han divide and rule system, fierce peace and restraint, provincial system, and the eight flag system are critical systems created by local factions of noteworthy historical mention.[31]
Other critical political systems in ancient China
Eclectical system
During the closing era of archaic society, the selective appointment of affiliated alliance leaders was conducted within the circle of noble families. This was not only reflective of antiquating public participation in politics, but also a sign of archaic society's vestiges.[32]
Hereditary system
A hereditary system with its distinctive privatization embodied the significant progress of society.[33]
Patriarchal systems
Since the Western Zhou dynasty, the patriarchal clan system was a system in which the inheritance relationship and the title were determined by blood relationship and marital status. The patriarchal clan system and privilege system formed by the patriarchal system had a far-reaching influence on later generations.[34]
Gentry system
The gentry was developed from influential landlords and belonged to the most prestigious stratum of the landlord class. The gentry system was formed during the
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