Politics
Part of the Politics series |
Politics |
---|
Politics portal |
Politics (from
It may be used positively in the context of a "political solution" which is compromising and non-violent,[1] or descriptively as "the art or science of government", but also often carries a negative connotation.[2] The concept has been defined in various ways, and different approaches have fundamentally differing views on whether it should be used extensively or in a limited way, empirically or normatively, and on whether conflict or co-operation is more essential to it.
A variety of methods are deployed in politics, which include promoting one's own political views among people,
In modern
A political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a society. The history of political thought can be traced back to early antiquity, with seminal works such as Plato's Republic, Aristotle's Politics, Confucius's political manuscripts and Chanakya's Arthashastra.[8]
Etymology
The English politics has its roots in the name of Aristotle's classic work, Politiká, which introduced the Ancient Greek term politiká (Πολιτικά, 'affairs of the cities'). In the mid-15th century, Aristotle's composition would be rendered in Early Modern English as Polettiques [sic],[a][9] which would become Politics in Modern English.
The singular politic first attested in English in 1430, coming from Middle French politique—itself taking from politicus,[10] a Latinization of the Greek πολιτικός (politikos) from πολίτης (polites, 'citizen') and πόλις (polis, 'city').[11]
Definitions
- Harold Lasswell: "who gets what, when, how"[12]
- David Easton: "the authoritative allocation of values for a society"[13]
- Vladimir Lenin: "the most concentrated expression of economics"[14]
- Otto von Bismarck: "the capacity of always choosing at each instant, in constantly changing situations, the least harmful, the most useful"[15]
- Bernard Crick: "a distinctive form of rule whereby people act together through institutionalized procedures to resolve differences"[16]
- Adrian Leftwich: "comprises all the activities of co-operation, negotiation and conflict within and between societies"[17]
Approaches
There are several ways in which approaching politics has been conceptualized.
Extensive and limited
Moralism and realism
Some perspectives on politics view it empirically as an exercise of power, while others see it as a social function with a
Conflict and co-operation
Agonism argues that politics essentially comes down to conflict between conflicting interests. Political scientist Elmer Schattschneider argued that "at the root of all politics is the universal language of conflict,"[27] while for Carl Schmitt the essence of politics is the distinction of 'friend' from foe'.[28] This is in direct contrast to the more co-operative views of politics by Aristotle and Crick. However, a more mixed view between these extremes is provided by Irish political scientist Michael Laver, who noted that:
Politics is about the characteristic blend of conflict and co-operation that can be found so often in human interactions. Pure conflict is war. Pure co-operation is true love. Politics is a mixture of both.[29]
History
The history of politics spans human history and is not limited to modern institutions of government.
Prehistoric
Frans de Waal argued that chimpanzees engage in politics through "social manipulation to secure and maintain influential positions."[31] Early human forms of social organization—bands and tribes—lacked centralized political structures.[32] These are sometimes referred to as stateless societies.
Early states
In ancient history,
State formation
There are a number of different theories and hypotheses regarding early state formation that seek generalizations to explain why the state developed in some places but not others. Other scholars believe that generalizations are unhelpful and that each case of early state formation should be treated on its own.[33]
Voluntary theories contend that diverse groups of people came together to form states as a result of some shared rational interest.[34] The theories largely focus on the development of agriculture, and the population and organizational pressure that followed and resulted in state formation. One of the most prominent theories of early and primary state formation is the hydraulic hypothesis, which contends that the state was a result of the need to build and maintain large-scale irrigation projects.[35]
Conflict theories of state formation regard conflict and dominance of some population over another population as key to the formation of states.[34] In contrast with voluntary theories, these arguments believe that people do not voluntarily agree to create a state to maximize benefits, but that states form due to some form of oppression by one group over others. Some theories in turn argue that warfare was critical for state formation.[34]
Ancient history
The first states of sorts were those of
Egyptians, Romans, and the Greeks were the first people known to have explicitly formulated a political philosophy of the state, and to have rationally analyzed political institutions. Prior to this, states were described and justified in terms of religious myths.[38]
Several important political innovations of
Modern states
The
In
Most theories see the nation state as a 19th-century European phenomenon, facilitated by developments such as state-mandated education, mass
Some nation states, such as
Globalization
Political globalization began in the 20th century through
Political science
This section needs additional citations for verification. (December 2020) |
The study of politics is called political science,
Political science is methodologically diverse and appropriates many methods originating in
Political system
All the above forms of government are variations of the same basic polity, the sovereign state. The state has been defined by Max Weber as a political entity that has monopoly on violence within its territory, while the Montevideo Convention holds that states need to have a defined territory; a permanent population; a government; and a capacity to enter into international relations.
A stateless society is a
While stateless societies were the norm in human prehistory, few stateless societies exist today; almost the entire global population resides within the jurisdiction of a sovereign state. In some regions nominal state authorities may be very weak and wield little or no actual power. Over the course of history most stateless peoples have been integrated into the state-based societies around them.[62]
Some political philosophies consider the state undesirable, and thus consider the formation of a stateless society a goal to be achieved. A central tenet of
Constitutions
Constitutions often set out separation of powers, dividing the government into the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary (together referred to as the trias politica), in order to achieve checks and balances within the state. Additional independent branches may also be created, including civil service commissions, election commissions, and supreme audit institutions.
Political culture
Political culture describes how culture impacts politics. Every political system is embedded in a particular political culture.[67] Lucian Pye's definition is that "Political culture is the set of attitudes, beliefs, and sentiments, which give order and meaning to a political process and which provide the underlying assumptions and rules that govern behavior in the political system".[67]
Trust is a major factor in political culture, as its level determines the capacity of the state to function.[68] Postmaterialism is the degree to which a political culture is concerned with issues which are not of immediate physical or material concern, such as human rights and environmentalism.[67] Religion has also an impact on political culture.[68]
Political dysfunction
Political corruption
Political corruption is the use of powers for illegitimate private gain, conducted by government officials or their network contacts. Forms of political corruption include bribery, cronyism, nepotism, and political patronage. Forms of political patronage, in turn, includes clientelism, earmarking, pork barreling, slush funds, and spoils systems; as well as political machines, which is a political system that operates for corrupt ends.
When corruption is embedded in political culture, this may be referred to as patrimonialism or neopatrimonialism. A form of government that is built on corruption is called a kleptocracy ('rule of thieves').
Insincere politics
The words "politics" and "political" are sometimes used as pejoratives to mean political action that is deemed to be overzealous, performative, or insincere.[69]
Levels of politics
Macropolitics
Macropolitics can either describe political issues that affect an entire political system (e.g. the nation state), or refer to interactions between political systems (e.g. international relations).[70]
Global politics (or world politics) covers all aspects of politics that affect multiple political systems, in practice meaning any political phenomenon crossing national borders. This can include cities, nation-states, multinational corporations, non-governmental organizations, and/or international organizations. An important element is international relations: the relations between nation-states may be peaceful when they are conducted through diplomacy, or they may be violent, which is described as war. States that are able to exert strong international influence are referred to as superpowers, whereas less-powerful ones may be called regional or middle powers. The international system of power is called the world order, which is affected by the balance of power that defines the degree of polarity in the system. Emerging powers are potentially destabilizing to it, especially if they display revanchism or irredentism.
Politics inside the limits of political systems, which in contemporary context correspond to national
Mesopolitics
Mesopolitics describes the politics of intermediary structures within a political system, such as national political parties or movements.[70]
A political party is a
Political parties within a particular political system together form the party system, which can be either multiparty, two-party, dominant-party, or one-party, depending on the level of pluralism. This is affected by characteristics of the political system, including its electoral system. According to Duverger's law, first-past-the-post systems are likely to lead to two-party systems, while proportional representation systems are more likely to create a multiparty system.
Micropolitics
Micropolitics describes the actions of individual actors within the political system.
- Activism
- Boycott
- Civil disobedience
- Demonstration
- Petition
- Picketing
- Strike action
- Tax resistance
- Voting (or its opposite, abstentionism)
Political values
Democracy
Part of the Politics series |
Democracy |
---|
Politics portal |
Democracy is a system of processing conflicts in which outcomes depend on what participants do, but no single force controls what occurs and its outcomes. The uncertainty of outcomes is inherent in democracy. Democracy makes all forces struggle repeatedly to realize their interests and devolves power from groups of people to sets of rules.[73]
Among modern political theorists, there are three contending conceptions of democracy: aggregative, deliberative, and radical.[74]
Aggregative
The theory of aggregative democracy claims that the aim of the democratic processes is to solicit the preferences of citizens, and aggregate them together to determine what social policies the society should adopt. Therefore, proponents of this view hold that democratic participation should primarily focus on voting, where the policy with the most votes gets implemented.
Different variants of aggregative democracy exist. Under minimalism, democracy is a system of government in which citizens have given teams of political leaders the right to rule in periodic elections. According to this minimalist conception, citizens cannot and should not "rule" because, for example, on most issues, most of the time, they have no clear views or their views are not well-founded. Joseph Schumpeter articulated this view most famously in his book Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy.[75] Contemporary proponents of minimalism include William H. Riker, Adam Przeworski, Richard Posner.
According to the theory of direct democracy, on the other hand, citizens should vote directly, not through their representatives, on legislative proposals. Proponents of direct democracy offer varied reasons to support this view. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socializes and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites. Most importantly, citizens do not rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies.
Governments will tend to produce laws and policies that are close to the views of the median voter—with half to their left and the other half to their right. This is not a desirable outcome as it represents the action of self-interested and somewhat unaccountable political elites competing for votes. Anthony Downs suggests that ideological political parties are necessary to act as a mediating broker between individual and governments. Downs laid out this view in his 1957 book An Economic Theory of Democracy.[76]
Deliberative
Deliberative democracy is based on the notion that democracy is government by deliberation. Unlike aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy holds that, for a democratic decision to be legitimate, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not merely the aggregation of preferences that occurs in voting. Authentic deliberation is deliberation among decision-makers that is free from distortions of unequal political power, such as power a decision-maker obtained through economic wealth or the support of interest groups.[79][80][81] If the decision-makers cannot reach consensus after authentically deliberating on a proposal, then they vote on the proposal using a form of majority rule.
Radical
Radical democracy is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society. Democracy's role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision-making processes.
Equality
Equality is a state of affairs in which all people within a specific
Left–right spectrum
A common way of understanding politics is through the
Today, the left is generally progressivist, seeking social progress in society. The more extreme elements of the left, named the far-left, tend to support revolutionary means for achieving this. This includes ideologies such as Communism and Marxism. The center-left, on the other hand, advocate for more reformist approaches, for example that of social democracy.
In contrast, the right is generally motivated by conservatism, which seeks to conserve what it sees as the important elements of society such as law and order, limited federal government and preserving individual freedoms. The far-right goes beyond this, and often represents a reactionary turn against progress, seeking to undo it. Examples of such ideologies have included Fascism and Nazism. The center-right may be less clear-cut and more mixed in this regard, with neoconservatives supporting the spread of free markets and capitalism, and one-nation conservatives more open to social welfare programs.
According to Norberto Bobbio, one of the major exponents of this distinction, the left believes in attempting to eradicate social inequality—believing it to be unethical or unnatural,[91] while the right regards most social inequality as the result of ineradicable natural inequalities, and sees attempts to enforce social equality as utopian or authoritarian.[92] Some ideologies, notably
Freedom
Political freedom (also known as political liberty or autonomy) is a central concept in political thought and one of the most important features of democratic societies. Negative liberty has been described as freedom from oppression or coercion and unreasonable external constraints on action, often enacted through civil and political rights, while positive liberty is the absence of disabling conditions for an individual and the fulfillment of enabling conditions, e.g. economic compulsion, in a society. This capability approach to freedom requires economic, social and cultural rights in order to be realized.
Authoritarianism and libertarianism
For instance,
See also
- Horseshoe theory
- Index of politics articles – alphabetical list of political subjects
- List of politics awards
- List of years in politics
- Outline of political science – structured list of political topics, arranged by subject area
- Political lists – lists of political topics
- Political polarization
References
Notes
Citations
- ^ Leftwich 2015, p. 68.
- ^ Hague & Harrop 2013, p. 1.
- ^ Hammarlund 1985, p. 8.
- ^ Brady 2017, p. 47.
- ^ Hawkesworth & Kogan 2013, p. 299.
- ^ Taylor 2012, p. 130.
- ^ Blanton & Kegley 2016, p. 199.
- ^ Kabashima & White III 1986
- ^ Buhler, C. F., ed. 1961 [1941]. The Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers. London: Early English Text Society, Original Series No. 211 Archived 5 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Lewis & Short 1879, online.
- ^ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "A Greek-English Lexicon". Perseus Digital Library. Tufts Library. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
- ^ Lasswell 1963.
- ^ a b Easton 1981.
- ^ Lenin 1965.
- ^ Reichstag speech by Bismarck, January 29, 1886, in: Bismarck, The Collected Works. Friedrichsruher edition, vol. 13: Speeches. Edited by Wilhelm Schüßler, Berlin 1930, p. 177.
- ^ Crick 1972.
- ^ Leftwich 2004.
- ^ Leftwich 2004, pp. 14–15.
- ^ Leftwich 2004, p. 23.
- ^ Leftwich 2004, p. 119.
- ^ Dahl 2003, pp. 1–11.
- ^ Morlino 2017, p. 2.
- ^ a b c Atkinson 2013, pp. 1–5.
- ^ Leftwich 2004, p. 73.
- ^ Leftwich 2004, p. 16.
- ^ Morlino 2017, p. 3.
- OCLC 859587564.
- ISBN 978-1-85984-244-7. Archivedfrom the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 28 October 2020.
- ^ van der Eijk 2018, pp. 11, 29.
- ^ "Constitutional Rights Foundation". Crf-usa.org. Archived from the original on 16 February 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
- OCLC 493546705.
- OCLC 1082411117.
- ISSN 0084-6570.
- ^ a b c d Carneiro 1970, pp. 733–738.
- ^ Origins of the state : the anthropology of political evolution. Philadelphia : Institute for the Study of Human Issues. 1978. p. 30 – via Internet Archive.
- ^ a b Daniel 2003, p. xiii.
- ^ Daniel 2003, pp. 9–11.
- ^ Nelson & Nelson 2006, p. 17.
- ^ Kumar, Sanjay (2021). A Handbook of Political Geography. K.K. Publications. Archived from the original on 24 March 2023. Retrieved 22 February 2023.
- ^ Osiander 2001, p. 251.
- ^ Gross 1948, pp. 20–41.
- ]
- ^ Kissinger 2014.
- ^ Krasner, Stephen D. (2010). "The durability of organized hypocrisy". In Kalmo, Hent; Skinner, Quentin (eds.). Sovereignty in Fragments: The Past, Present and Future of a Contested Concept. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ "From Westphalia, with love – Indian Express". archive.indianexpress.com. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2020.
- ISBN 0-521-43961-2) chapter II "The popular protonationalism", pp. 80–81 French edition (Gallimard, 1992). According to Hobsbawm, the main source for this subject is Ferdinand Brunot (ed.), Histoire de la langue française, Paris, 1927–1943, 13 volumes, in particular volume IX. He also refers to Michel de Certeau, Dominique Julia, Judith Revel, Une politique de la langue: la Révolution française et les patois: l'enquête de l'abbé Grégoire, Paris, 1975. For the problem of the transformation of a minority official language into a widespread national language during and after the French Revolution, see Renée Balibar, L'Institution du français: essai sur le co-linguisme des Carolingiens à la République, Paris, 1985 (also Le co-linguisme, PUF, Que sais-je?, 1994, but out of print) The Institution of the French language: essay on colinguism from the Carolingian to the Republic. Finally, Hobsbawm refers to Renée Balibar and Dominique Laporte, Le Français national: politique et pratique de la langue nationale sous la Révolution, Paris, 1974.
- ISBN 978-0-19-932795-9. Archivedfrom the original on 10 July 2020. Retrieved 5 May 2020.
- ISBN 978-0-9748961-0-6. Archivedfrom the original on 21 May 2021. Retrieved 28 October 2020.
- ^ Black, Jeremy.1998. Maps and Politics. pp. 59–98, 100–147.
- ^ Foucault, Michel. [1977–1978] 2007. Security, Territory, Population: Lectures at the Collège de France.
- ^ Branch 2011.
- ^ "What is Political Science?". www.polisci.washington.edu. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
- OCLC 1144813972.
- ^ "What is Comparative Politics?". Social Sci LibreTexts. 22 February 2022. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
- ^ a b Craig 2005, p. 14.
- ISBN 978-0-8147-2219-0. Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 4 May 2020 – via Google Books.
- ^ Béteille 2002, pp. 1042–1043.
- ISBN 978-0-8147-2709-6. Archivedfrom the original on 16 November 2020. Retrieved 4 May 2020 – via Google Books.
- ^ Sheehan, Sean (2004). Anarchism. London: Reaktion Books. p. 85.
- ISBN 978-0-19-280276-7.
- ^ Engels, Frederick (1880). "Part III: Historical Materialism". Socialism: Utopian and Scientific. Archived from the original on 7 February 2021. Retrieved 4 May 2020 – via Marx/Engels Internet Archive (marxists.org).
State interference in social relations becomes, in one domain after another, superfluous, and then dies out of itself; the government of persons is replaced by the administration of things, and by the conduct of processes of production. The State is not "abolished". It dies out...Socialized production upon a predetermined plan becomes henceforth possible. The development of production makes the existence of different classes of society thenceforth an anachronism. In proportion as anarchy in social production vanishes, the political authority of the State dies out. Man, at last the master of his own form of social organization, becomes at the same time the lord over Nature, his own master—free.
- ^ "Britain's unwritten constitution". The British Library. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2019.
- ^ a b c Morlino, Berg-Schlosser & Badie 2017, pp. 64–74
- ^ a b Hague 2017, pp. 200–214.
- ^ "Definitions of political". onelook.com. Retrieved 26 October 2023.
Motivated, especially inappropriately, by political (electoral or other party political) calculation
- ^ a b c Morlino, Berg-Schlosser & Badie 2017, p. 20
- ^ Pettitt 2014, p. 60.
- ^ Morlino, Berg-Schlosser & Badie 2017, p. 161
- ^ Przeworski, Adam (1991). Democracy and the Market. Cambridge University Press. pp. 10–14.
- from the original on 18 August 2021. Retrieved 14 June 2020.
- ISBN 0-06-133008-6.
- ^ Downs 1957.
- ^ Dahl 1989.
- ISBN 978-0-691-13872-5. p. 134.
- ISBN 978-0-691-12019-5
- The MIT Press. pp. 72–73.
- ^ Ethan J. 2006. "Can Direct Democracy Be Made Deliberative?" Buffalo Law Review 54.
- ^ Heywood 2017, pp. 14–17.
- ^ Love 2006, p. 16.
- ^ Petrik 2010, p. 4.
- ^ Sznajd-Weron & Sznajd 2005, pp. 593–604
- ISBN 978-0-333-76548-7.
- OCLC 1021804010.
- ^ Jones & Kavanagh 2003, p. 259.
- OCLC 51478878.
- ^ Knapp, Andrew; Wright, Vincent (2006). The Government and Politics of France. London: Routledge.
- ^ Gelderloos, Peter (2010). Anarchy Works.
- ^ Bobbio 1997.
- ^ Roberts & Hogwood 1997.
- ^ Tore 2014.
- ^ "bale p.40" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 March 2017. Retrieved 25 February 2018.
- ^ Kemmelmeier et al. 2003, pp. 304–322
- ^ "An Anarchist FAQ: 150 years of Libertarian". Anarchists Writers. April 2011. Archived from the original on 25 September 2018. Retrieved 25 September 2018.
- ^ "totalitarian". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d. Retrieved 25 September 2018. Archived from the original on 25 September 2018.
- ^ Adams, Ian. 2001. Political Ideology Today. Manchester: Manchester University Press. p. 20.
- ^ IHS. 2019. "What Is Libertarian?." Institute for Humane Studies. George Mason University. Archived 24 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- Black Rose Books.
Bibliography
- Atkinson, Sam (2013). The politics book. DK. pp. 1–5. OCLC 868135821.
- ISBN 978-0-415-28604-6. Archivedfrom the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 4 May 2020 – via Google Books.
- Blanton, Shannon L.; Kegley, Charles W. (2016). World Politics: Trend and Transformation, 2016–2017. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-305-50487-5. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 26 February 2018.
- ISBN 978-0-226-06246-4.
- Brady, Linda P. (2017). The Politics of Negotiation: America's Dealings with Allies, Adversaries, and Friends. ISBN 978-1-4696-3960-4. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2018.
- Branch, Jordan (2011). "Mapping the Sovereign State: Technology, Authority, and Systemic Change". S2CID 144712038.
- "How Maps Made the World". The Wilson Quarterly. Summer 2011. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 10 March 2022.
- Branch, Jordan Nathaniel (2011). Mapping the Sovereign State: Cartographic Technology, Political Authority, and Systemic Change (PhD thesis). University of California, Berkeley. Archived from the original on 4 January 2018. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
- Carneiro, Robert L. (21 August 1970). "A Theory of the Origin of the State: Traditional theories of state origins are considered and rejected in favor of a new ecological hypothesis". Science. 169 (3947): 733–738. from the original on 17 November 2019. Retrieved 30 April 2020.
- Craig, Edward, ed. (2005). "Anarchism". The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-134-34409-3.
Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable.
- Crick, Bernard (1972). In defence of politics. University of Chicago Press. OCLC 575753.
- ISBN 0-300-04938-2.
- Dahl, Robert A. (2003). Modern political analysis. Prentice Hall. OCLC 49611149.
- ISBN 1-84212-500-1. Archivedfrom the original on 29 June 2014. Retrieved 3 May 2020.
- ISBN 978-0-06-041750-5.
- Easton, David (1981). The political system: an inquiry into the state of political science (3rd ed.). University of Chicago Press. OCLC 781301164.
- Gross, Leo (January 1948). "The Peace of Westphalia" (PDF). The American Journal of International Law. 42 (1): 20–41. (PDF) from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 5 May 2020.
- Hague, Rod; Harrop, Martin (2013). Comparative Government and Politics: An Introduction. Macmillan International Higher Education. ISBN 978-1-137-31786-5. Archivedfrom the original on 7 July 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2018.
- Hague, Rod (2017). Political Science: A Comparative Introduction. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 200–214. OCLC 970345358.
- Hammarlund, Bo (1985). Politik utan partier: studier i Sveriges politiska liv 1726–1727. Almqvist & Wiksell International. ISBN 978-91-22-00780-7. Archivedfrom the original on 3 July 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2018.
- Hawkesworth, Mary; Kogan, Maurice (2013). Encyclopedia of Government and Politics: 2-volume Set. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-91332-7. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2018.
- Heywood, Andrew (2017). Political Ideologies: An Introduction (6th ed.). Basingstoke: Macmillan International Higher Education. OCLC 988218349.
- Jones, Bill; Kavanagh, Dennis (2003). British Politics Today. Kavanagh, Dennis. (7th ed.). Manchester: Manchester University Press. OCLC 52876930.
- Kabashima, Ikuo; White III, Lynn T., eds. (1986). Political System and Change: A World Politics Reader. Princeton University Press. JSTOR j.ctt7ztn7s.
- S2CID 32361036.
- Kissinger, Henry (2014). World Order. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-698-16572-4.
- Lasswell, Harold D. (1963) [1958]. Politics: who gets what, when how. : With postscript. World. OCLC 61585455.
- Leftwich, Adrian (2004). What is politics? : the activity and its study. Polity. OCLC 1044115261.
- Leftwich, Adrian (2015). What is politics? : the activity and its study. Polity Press. OCLC 911200604.
- Lenin, Vladimir I. (1965). Collected works. September 1903 – December 1904. OCLC 929381958.
- Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles (1879). "pŏlītĭcus". A Latin Dictionary. Clarendon Press. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2016 – via Perseus Digital Library.
- Love, Nancy Sue (2006). Understanding Dogmas and Dreams (2nd ed.). Washington, District of Columbia: CQ Press. OCLC 893684473.
- Morlino, Leonardo (2017). Political science. Sage Publications Inc. OCLC 951226897.
- Morlino, Leonardo; Berg-Schlosser, Dirk; Badie, Bertrand (2017). Political science : a global perspective. London, England: SAGE. pp. 64–74. OCLC 1124515503.
- Nelson, B.; Nelson, Brian R. (2006). The Making of the Modern State: A Theoretical Evolution. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-7189-0. Archivedfrom the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 30 April 2020.
- Osiander, Andreas (2001). "Sovereignty, International Relations, and the Westphalian Myth". International Organization. 55 (2): 251–287. S2CID 145407931.
- Petrik, Andreas (3 December 2010). "Core Concept 'Political Compass'. How Kitschelt's Model of Liberal, Socialist, Libertarian and Conservative Orientations Can Fill the Ideology Gap in Civic Education". Journal of Social Science Education: 4. doi:10.4119/jsse-541. Archived from the originalon 22 June 2019.
- Pettitt, Robin T. (2014). Contemporary Party Politics. London: Macmillan International Higher Education. ISBN 978-1-137-41264-5. Archivedfrom the original on 3 July 2019. Retrieved 28 February 2019 – via Google Books.
- Roberts and Hogwood, European Politics Today, Manchester University Press, 1997.
- Sznajd-Weron, Katarzyna; Sznajd, Józef (June 2005). "Who is left, who is right?". Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications. 351 (2–4): 593–604. .
- Taylor, Steven L. (2012). 30-Second Politics: The 50 most thought-provoking ideas in politics, each explained in half a minute. Icon Books Limited. p. 130. ISBN 978-1-84831-427-6. Archivedfrom the original on 6 July 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2018.
- Tore, Bjorgo (2014). Terror from the Extreme Right. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. OCLC 871861016.
- van der Eijk, Cees (2018). "What Is Politics?". The Essence of Politics. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. pp. 9–24. from the original on 2 February 2021. Retrieved 5 February 2021.
Further reading
- Adcock, Robert. 2014. Liberalism and the Emergence of American Political Science: A Transatlantic Tale. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Adcock, Robert, Mark Bevir, and Shannon Stimson (eds.). 2007. Modern Political Science: Anglo-American Exchanges Since 1870. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
- Almond, Gabriel A. 1996. "Political Science: The History of the Discipline", pp. 50–96, in Robert E. Goodin and Hans-Dieter Klingemann (eds.), The New Handbook of Political Science. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
- Connolly, William (1981). Appearance and Reality in Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- James, Raul; Soguk, Nevzat (2014). Globalization and Politics, Vol. 1: Global Political and Legal Governance. London: Sage Publications. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
- ISBN 978-1-83860-004-4, 240 pp.), London Review of Books, vol. 43, no. 9 (6 May 2021), pp. 3, 5–8.
- Munck, Gerardo L., and Richard Snyder (eds.). Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007.
- Ross, Dorothy. 1991. The Origins of American Social Science. New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Ryan, Alan (2012). On Politics: A History of Political Thought from Herodotus to the Present. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9364-6.