Politics and sports
Politics and sports or sports diplomacy describes the use of sport as a means to influence diplomatic, social, and political relations. Sports diplomacy may transcend cultural differences and bring people together. The use of sports and politics has had both positive and negative implications over history. Sports competitions or activities have had the intention to bring about change in certain cases. Nationalistic fervour is sometimes linked to victories or losses to some sport on sports fields.[1]
While the
Sports
Association football
In regards to the politics of space and football in Europe, football has been historically able to simultaneously maintain the differences that give each European country their own sense of identity as well as strengthen the bonds that bind them together as one body.[3] Further, football stadiums in Europe have acted as both places of refuge as well as sites of terrorist attacks and political uprisings. According to Benoit, during the period of the Second World War, European Football underwent a massive transformation. With a coinciding sharp rise in popularity at a time of high political intensity, football became politicized. Therefore, Benoit argues that football began to embody three main characteristics during and after this period, becoming: 1) an agent of international relations in the sense that the foreign policies of European nations became supposedly articulated in football; 2) a source of political propaganda via using football to expose the state; 3) a tool to pacify constituents.[4] Consequently, all of these factors have contributed to the emergence of football and its stadiums as a means of political expression, a basis of recent collective memory, and its emergence as a highly politicized game.
While many clubs don't have a fixed political identity, some clubs are known to have clear leanings. According to
While Sunderland fans are generally regarded as left wing,
One of the biggest and oldest football rivalries is the
Bandy
Norway declined to take part in the 1957 Bandy World Championship because the Soviet Union was invited, due to the Soviet invasion of Hungary the year before. The country made a similar protest for the 1969 Bandy World Championship because of the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia that year, handing over the hosting of the 1969 event to Sweden.
Ukraine declined to take part in the 2015 Bandy World Championship hosted by Russia because of the Russian annexation of Crimea the year before, since Ukraine still considers Crimea as part of its territory.
Boxing
I walked down Seventh Avenue and saw grown men weeping like children, and women sitting in the curbs with their head in their hands. All across the country that night when the news came out that Joe was knocked out, people cried. – Langston Hughes[15]
Schmeling was, however, welcomed home with a jubilant reaction. Hitler sent his wife flowers with the message: "For the wonderful victory of your husband, our greatest German boxer, I must congratulate you with all my heart." Schmeling responded to the accolades saying: "At this moment I have to tell Germany, I have to report to the Führer in particular, that the thoughts of all my countrymen were with me in this fight; that the Führer and his faithful people were thinking of me. This thought gave me the strength to succeed in this fight. It gave me the courage and the endurance to win this victory for Germany's colours."[16]
A rematch was scheduled later in New York City. In the build-up to the event U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt offered his support: "Joe, we need muscles like yours to beat Germany." Schmeling's hotel was picketed by American protestors after an accompanying Nazi Party publicist declared that a black man could not defeat Schmeling and that when he won, his prize money would be used to build German tanks.[17] Louis won the rematch in a first round knock out and he became the focal point of anti-Nazi sentiment leading up to World War II. Louis later recalled the pressure on him before the fight: "I knew I had to get Schmeling good. I had my own personal reasons and the whole damned country was depending me."[16]
Decades later,
After earning the championship, Clay converted his religion to Islam, which instigated conflict with his boxing career. He also abandoned his name that was given to his slave ancestors and adopted Muhammad Ali. On 28 April 1967, he refused to serve in the Army during the Vietnam War, stating religious reasons that it goes against the Qur'an's teaching.
I ain't got no quarrel with those Vietcong...no Vietcong ever called me nigger. – Muhammad Ali
He then became an icon of not only the civil rights struggle, but also the anti-Vietnam War movement. However he was convicted of draft evasion, sentenced to five years in prison, fined $10,000 and stripped of his championship. It was not until a lawsuit in 1970 that Ali redeemed his title. He would continue in historical boxing matches now known as
Chérif Hamia a boxer born in Algeria but that played under the colonial France's behalf reached at the top level and reached in finals of European Cup. He is said to have been ordered under threat by FLN independentist members during Algerian-French independence war (he was considered as the favourite), to "either win while covering himself under an Algerian flag or to lose to the other player Nigerian Hogan Bassey Kid.
Chess
Chess, which is a recognized sport of the International Olympic Committee, has a history of being linked to political issues. World Champion
Cricket
In 1969, the
Cricket has also had a hand to play in sporting diplomacy. Following the
In an attempt to replicate the cricket diplomacy of the past General
In reference to immigrants from the Caribbean and South Asia, British Conservative party member Norman Tebbit once a "cricket test" could adjudge a person's loyalty to England by determining whether or not they supported the England and Wales cricket team ahead of those from their own countries of origin.
In 2008, the
China have also gotten in on the cricket diplomacy act.
Put on the back foot, a beleaguered Taiwan also used the World Cup to shore up its position among its shrinking West Indian support base. It doled out $21 million to
Following the death of
In 2011, India and Pakistan
Formula One
Amid the
In 2021, Formula One announced that one of its event will be held in Saudi Arabia. The move has been criticized by many human rights group as example of Saudi Arabia "sportswashing". The Grand Prix has received criticism from
The
In 2020, Formula One Group launched "We Race As One" initiative in the wake of Black Lives Matter movement gaining prominence in 2020. Since 2020 season some drivers are taking a knee to show solidarity. The movement focused on three aspects: sustainability, diversity and inclusion, and community.[45] The move received mixed reaction among fans, some fans criticized the move as ironic as some races are still being held in countries with poor human rights record such as Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Russia, China, Azerbaijan, etc.[46] In 2022, Formula One decided to scrap the "We Race As One" gesture, however the move was criticized by some drivers.[47]
Olympics
Going as far back as the
Hitler had a certain time to come to the stadium and a certain time to leave. It happened he had to leave before the victory ceremony after the 100 meters. But before he left I was on my way to a broadcast and passed near his box. He waved at me and I waved back. I think it was bad taste to criticise the 'man of the hour' – Jesse Owens[53]
In 1964,
Once again, in 1968, the global stage of the Olympics was used to show the world the plight of the
In 1972, several athletes of the
The 1980 Winter Olympics were used in a much less overtly political way, but in a much more culturally politically significant way. The United States men's Ice Hockey team defeated the USSR National team in the semi-final round. This win by the United States team was much more than just an Olympic game, the Soviets had been superior on the ice against everyone and had recently beaten the NHL All Star team.[54] The US Olympic team was all amateurs with an average age of 21,[55] while the Soviets were quasi-professional. The shocking victory in Lake Placid, during one of the heights of the Cold War brought about renewed nationalism and belief among the citizens of the United States and shock and shame to the Soviets.
The
Following the
Table tennis
As part of America's policy of rapprochement with China, the 1970s saw exchanges between table tennis players from the United States and the People's Republic of China that eventually led to U.S. President Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China. Ping pong diplomacy began when the Chinese table tennis team invited their U.S. counterparts to their country on an all-expense-paid trip during the 1971 World Table Tennis Championships in Japan and on April 10, 1971, a group made up of American table tennis players and journalists became the first American delegation to set foot in the Chinese capital since 1949.[57] Thirty-six years later, a three-day "Ping-Ping Diplomacy" event was held at the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum which some of the members from the 1971 U.S. and Chinese teams were able to participate in.[58]
Tennis
In 2008, Israeli professional tennis players
During the
The two were also involved in another campaign promoted by the Monaco-based Peace and Sport when they wore sweat shirts with slogans reading "Stop War, Start Tennis." They refer to themselves as the "Indo-Pak Express." Such a high-profile collaboration meant this was read as a "unique" partnership. Qureshi said "It just feels like us doing well on the bigger level is getting the message across throughout the world – if me and Rohan can get along so well there's no reason the Indians and Pakistanis can't get along with each other. If even two or three per cent of people say, 'If they can get along why can't we?' that's what we're trying to do. "They're all mixed together sitting in the crowd. You can't tell who is Pakistani and who is Indian. That's the beauty about sports. Before our pairing you would never see that in any sports, fighting for one cause. It's really good to be part of it."[61]
After their finals defeat, Qureshi spoke to the crowd to "say something on behalf of all Pakistanis, [that] every time I come here, there's a wrong perception about the people of Pakistan. They are very friendly, very loving people. We want peace in this world as much as you guys." He then made a political appeal to the controversial "
Countries
China
In the 1950s, the State Physical Culture and Sports Commission under General He Long conducted sports exchanges with the Soviet Union and eastern Europe.[63]: 139
After stopping competing during the earlier parts of the
In the early 1970s, the State Physical Culture and Sports Commission was tasked with facilitating sports diplomacy.[66]: 139 In 1974, it exchanged 172 groups of 3,200 athletes with eighty other countries, most of them in the Third World.[66]: 139
In 2019, the politicization of sports in China has been expanded internationally. In the wake of
In December 2019,
The politicization of sports in the country would continue later on
South Africa
Most famously, the sporting boycott of
The South African
Started in 1980, the United Nations "Register of Sports Contacts with South Africa" – a record of sports exchanges with South Africa and a list of sportsmen who have participated in sports events in South Africa – prove to be an effective instrument to discourage collaboration with apartheid sport.[76][77] In the 1980s South Africa was also expelled from most international sports bodies. The International Olympic Committee even adopted a declaration against "apartheid in sport" on 21 June 1988, for the total isolation of apartheid sport.[78][79]
The country's hosting and winning of the
Soviet Union
Soviet Olympic team was notorious for skirting the edge of amateur rules. All Soviet athletes held some nominal jobs, but were in fact state-sponsored and trained full-time. According to many experts, that gave the Soviet Union a huge advantage over the United States and other Western countries, whose athletes were students or real amateurs.[82][83] Indeed, the Soviet Union monopolized the top place in the medal standings after 1968, and, until its collapse, placed second only once, in the 1984 Winter games, after another Eastern bloc nation, the GDR. Amateur rules were relaxed only in the late 1980s and were almost completely abolished in the 1990s, after the fall of the USSR.[84][85]
Doping
According to British journalist
Documents obtained in 2016 revealed the Soviet Union's plans for a statewide doping system in track and field in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Dated prior to the country's decision to boycott the Games, the document detailed the existing steroids operations of the program, along with suggestions for further enhancements.[88] The communication, directed to the Soviet Union's head of track and field, was prepared by Dr. Sergei Portugalov of the Institute for Physical Culture. Portugalov was also one of the main figures involved in the implementation of the Russian doping program prior to the 2016 Summer Olympics.[88]
Flag bearers controversy
Soviet officials expected the flag bearer to show an example of an attractive, physically strong person and a distinguished athlete. He was expected to carry the flag through the Olympic ceremony in one hand unsupported by a harness. This presented a formidable physical task as the flag weighed 16 kilograms (35 lb) in the 1960s, and a sudden wind might further increase the physical load. Hence the Soviet flag bearers at the opening ceremony of the Summer Olympics were selected from among heavyweight weightlifters or wrestlers, who did not have to compete the next day.[89]
Soviet officials also expected the flag bearer to win a gold medal at the given Olympics. This resulted in absurd situations at the 1952 and 1956 Summer Olympics, when the selected flag bearers, Yakov Kutsenko and Aleksey Medvedev respectively, were not allowed to compete because the officials did not believe they would win a gold medal. Both were top-level heavyweight weightlifters. Kutsenko placed second at the 1950 World Championships and Medvedev won the world title in 1956 and 1957.[89]
United States
Fans of
A study of elections has shown that the result of sports events can affect the overall results. A study published in the
In the
Baseball players union boss
Olympic gold medalist Carl Lewis planned to run for office from New Jersey, though his attempt was blocked and he awaited an appeal hearing.[98]
In 2002, the
In 2016,
North Korea
Football World Cup
North Korea's relationships with the international community, especially
1988 Seoul Olympics
The years leading up to, during, and after the
During this time, North Korea's major allies were China, the
As a result of the failed negotiations North Korea engaged in several acts of terrorism. In 1987, in an attempt to destabilize the Olympic Games and instill fear in the international community, a South Korean commercial flight, Korean Air Flight 858 was bombed killing 115 passengers on board.[104] This event did not fulfill its intended purpose and instead further weakened North Korea's international reputation.
13th World Festival of Youth and Students
North Korea, following its unsuccessful effort to sabotage the Seoul Olympics decided to hold the 13th World Festival of Youth and Students in 1989. Coming one year after the most successful Olympics in years, there was large pressure on the North Korean regime to hold a similarly successful event. Although this event brought in 177 countries, the greatest number in its history, it was never seen as a true alternative to the Olympics and did not gain the international visibility that the North Korean government had hoped for.[104] In addition, the cost of the event was a staggering 4 billion dollars and helped further push North Korea into the financial distress that was so prevalent during the 1990s.
Pyongyang International Sports and Culture Festival for Peace
Japanese wrestler-turned-politician Antonio Inoki worked with the North Korean government to organize the Pyongyang International Sports and Culture Festival for Peace in April 1995 in order to promote peace between North Korea, the United States and Japan. The Festival culminated in two nights of professional wrestling, which featured bouts between Japanese and American wrestlers that were watched by guest of honor Muhammad Ali.[106] Several of the bouts were broadcast on pay-per-view in the US under the title 'Collision in Korea'.
Arirang Festival
The
Recent relations with South Korea
North Korea and South Korea marched together for the
Many inter-Korean sporting events were held in the 2000s. These events were referred to as unification matches.[107]
Internal use of sports politics
The North Korean leaders understood the importance of sports not only in the international community, but also internally. The major ideology in North Korea, Juche, has been solidified through the Communist Party's use of sports.[102] The North Korea regime believed that by supporting the increases in sport, the North Korean people would overall be more fit. This would allow the people to be more useful in the revolutionary struggle. For this reason, it was important to start athletics young. In fact, training in physical sport was mandatory during schooling. In the 2000s, major sporting events were being broadcast throughout North Korea, and these events are still being used as propaganda tools. Sports have played a vital role in maintaining the power of the ruling class, while at the same time offering opportunities to interact with the international community.
Others
More recently
Red Kelly became a Canadian MP while playing for the Toronto Maple Leafs.
Former cricketer
In
Former chess player Garry Kasparov also became an opposition activist in his native Russia.
Former offshore powerboat racer
Some Formula One drivers has been involved in politics after their retirement. Former Japanese driver
Colonial won victories
Some victories are considered retroactively to be belonging rather to ex-colonies rather than countries under which players fought under. Retroactive decisions are commonplace in sports, no matter it is for cheating, doping or other sanctioned behaviours.[115]
In popular culture
This section is in prose. is available. (September 2021) |
- Films
See also
- Sportswashing
- Sport sanctions
- Stick to sports
- List of sporting scandals
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