Politics of England

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Politics of England forms the major part of the wider politics of the United Kingdom, with England being more populous than all the other countries of the United Kingdom put together. As England is also by far the largest in terms of area and GDP, its relationship to the UK is somewhat different from that of Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland. The English capital London is also the capital of the UK, and English is the dominant language of the UK (not officially, but de facto). Dicey and Morris (p26) list the separate states in the British Islands. "England, Scotland, Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man, Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark.... is a separate country in the sense of the conflict of laws, though not one of them is a State known to public international law." But this may be varied by statute.

The United Kingdom is one state for the purposes of the Bills of Exchange Act 1882. Great Britain is a single state for the purposes of the Companies Act 1985. Traditionally authors referred to the legal unit or state of England and Wales as "England" although this usage is becoming politically unacceptable in the last few decades. The Parliament of the United Kingdom is located in London, as is its civil service, HM Treasury and most of the official residences of the monarchy. In addition, the state bank of the UK is known as the "Bank of England".

Though associated with England for some purposes, the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey have their own parliaments, and are not part of the United Kingdom, the European Union or England.

Prior to the

government
.

witan
(11th century)
A 16th-century depiction of the medieval Parliament of England

History

Pre-Union politics

Royal arms of England after the Union of the Crowns under James VI and I
(r. 1603–1625)
Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland under Oliver Cromwell, the Lord Protector
(r. 1653–1659)
Main articles: Government in medieval England and Elizabethan government

The

Witenagemot
. Hollister argues that:

In an age lacking precise definitions of constitutional relationships, the deeply ingrained custom that the king governed in consultation with the Witan, implicit in almost every important royal document of the period, makes the Witenagemot one of Anglo-Saxon England's fundamental political institutions.[1]

In 1066,

King John
, which established that the king may not levy or collect any taxes (except the feudal taxes to which they were hitherto accustomed), save with the consent of his royal council, which slowly developed into a parliament.

In 1265,

Forty-shilling Freeholders). In the boroughs
, the franchise varied across the country; individual boroughs had varying arrangements.

This set the scene for the so-called "Model Parliament" of 1295 adopted by Edward I. By the reign of Edward II, Parliament had been separated into two Houses: one including the nobility and higher clergy, the other including the knights and burgesses, and no law could be made, nor any tax levied, without the consent of both Houses as well as of the Sovereign.

The

Laws in Wales Acts
of 1535–42 annexed Wales as part of England and brought Welsh representatives to Parliament.

When

the Restoration
of 1660 restored the monarchy and the House of Lords.

Amidst fears of a Roman Catholic succession, the

English Bill of Rights introduced a constitutional monarchy, though the supremacy of the Crown remained. For the third time, a Convention Parliament
, i.e., one not summoned by the king, was required to determine the succession.

Post-Union politics

The flag of England was incorporated into what is now the Union Jack.
Royal coat of arms of the Kingdom of Great Britain after the Acts of Union 1707 under Anne, Queen of England (r. 1702–1707) and of Great Britain (r. 1707–1725)
Royal coat of arms
between 1837 and 1952
Main articles: Treaty of Union, Acts of Union 1707, Parliament of Great Britain, and Politics of the United Kingdom

Once the terms of the

Acts of Union were passed in both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland, which created a new Kingdom of Great Britain. The Acts dissolved both parliaments, replacing them with a new Parliament of the Kingdom of Great Britain based in the former home of the English parliament. All the traditions, procedures, and standing orders of the English parliament were retained, as were the incumbent officers, and English members comprised the overwhelming majority of the new body. It was not even considered necessary to hold a new general election. While Scots law
and Scottish legislation remained separate, new legislation for both former kingdoms was now dealt with by the new parliament.

After the

Radicals sought parliamentary reform, but as the Napoleonic Wars
developed the government became repressive against dissent and progress toward reform was stalled.

European Parliament

European Parliament constituencies in England in 2009
Main article:
Elections in the European Union

When the United Kingdom was a member of the European Union, members of the

constituencies, of which nine were within England, the others being one each covering Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Gibraltar
, the only British Overseas Territory that was then part of the European Union, was included in the South West England European Constituency. At the last European Parliamentary election in which the United Kingdom participated, the English European constituencies were

Constituency Region Seats Pop. per Seat
1. London Greater London 9 7.4m 822k
2. South East England South East 10 8m 800k
3. South West England South West, Gibraltar 7 4.9m 700k
4. West Midlands West Midlands 7 5.2m 740k
5. North West England North West 9 6.7m 745k
6. North East England North East 3 2.5m 833k
7. Yorkshire and the Humber Yorkshire and the Humber 6 4.9m 816k
8. East Midlands East Midlands 6 4.1m 683k
9. East of England East of England 7 5.4m 770k

Post-devolution politics

West Lothian Question

While

1998 Northern Irish Belfast Agreement referendum
) England has never had any referendum for Independence or devolved Assembly/Parliament.

The

directly ruled in nearly all matters by the UK government in London, although London itself is devolved
(see below).

While Scotland and Northern Ireland have always had separate

Contemporary Welsh Law). However, laws concerning the Welsh language, and also the Senedd
, have created differences between the law in Wales, and the law in England, as they apply in Wales and not in England.

Regarding parliamentary matters, an anomaly called the

West Lothian Question had come to the fore as a result of legislative devolution for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland without corresponding legislative devolution for England. Before devolution, for example, purely 'Scottish' legislation was debated at Westminster
in a Scottish Grand Committee composed of just those MPs representing Scottish constituencies.

However, legislation was still subject to a vote of the entire House of Commons and this frequently led to legislation being passed despite the majority of Scottish MPs voting against. (This was especially true during the period of Conservative rule from 1979 to 1997 when the Conservative Party had an overall majority of MPs but only a handful representing Scotland and Wales.) Now that many Scottish matters are dealt with by the Scottish Parliament, the fact that MPs representing Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland can not vote on those issues as they affect Scotland, but can vote on those same issues as they affect England caused some disquiet. In 2015 English votes for English laws was passed by Westminster to solve this by giving English MPs a veto on legislation.

The Campaign for an English Parliament is a proponent of a separate English parliament.

Parliament of the United Kingdom

Portcullis House (L) and the Palace of Westminster (R), with the London Eye visible in the background.

The Parliament of the United Kingdom is located at Westminster in London.

House of Commons

English members of parliament are elected at the same time as those for the rest of the UK. There are 533 English constituencies. Because of their large number, they form an inbuilt majority in the House of Commons. Even though Clause 81 of the Scotland Act 1998 equalised the English and Scottish electoral quota, and thereby reduced the number of Scottish members in the House of Commons from 72 to 59 MPs.

English Grand Committee

See also:
English Grand Committee

For many years an anomaly known as the

Conservative Party won an unexpected overall majority and pledged to commit to a manifesto promise to change parliamentary procedures and create an English Grand Committee to give English MPs a much greater role in issues which affect only England (or England and Wales) as a solution to this issue known as "English votes for English laws" (EVEL). On 22 October 2015 following a heated debate in the House of Commons the Conservative Government led by David Cameron by 312 votes to 270 votes approved the proposals which came into effect immediately.[2]

House of Lords

The House of Lords also has an inbuilt English majority.

Members of the House of Lords who sit by virtue of their ecclesiastical offices are known as the

Dissolution of the Monasteries suppressed the positions of abbot and prior. In 1642, during the English Civil War, the Lords Spiritual were excluded altogether, but they returned under the Clergy Act 1661
.

The number of Lords Spiritual was further restricted by the

ex officio
.

Devolution

Former regional assemblies

Further information:
Regional Assemblies in England

After power was to be devolved to Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales without a counterweight in England, a series of referendums were planned to establish elected regional assemblies in some of the regions. The first was held in

London in 1998 and was passed. The London Assembly and Mayor of London of the Greater London Authority
were created in 2000.

A

Local Authority Leaders' Boards.[3]

Greater London Authority

City Hall
, London
Main article: Greater London Authority

Greater London has a certain amount of devolution, with the London Assembly and the directly elected Mayor of London. The Assembly was established on 3 July 2000, after a referendum in which 72% of those voting supported the creation of the Greater London Authority, which included the Assembly along with the Mayor of London. The referendum and establishment were largely contiguous with Scottish and Welsh devolution.

In Greater London, the 32

London borough councils have a status close to that of unitary authorities, but come under the Greater London Authority
, which oversees some of the functions performed elsewhere in England by Counties including transport, policing, the fire brigade and also economic development.

The

Lord Mayor of the City of London, the ancient and now mainly ceremonial role in the City of London. The Mayor of London is mayor of Greater London, which has a population of over 7.5 million while the City of London is only a small part of the modern city centre
and has a population of less than 10,000.

There is also a London political party,

United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP) and Veritas
.

('Devolved Regions' via) Metro Mayors

Further information:
Directly elected mayors in England and Wales

Localism saw limited return of regional devolution, with devolved powers for (Metro) city expansion and super-councils.

In 2014 it was announced that a

Sheffield City Region
followed in May 2018.

HM Government
in England

'England only' departments of the British Government

Several

British Government have responsibilities for matters affecting England alone. The heads of these departments are appointed by the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom to the Cabinet of the United Kingdom
and are not devolved:

Non-ministerial government departments

Non-ministerial government departments of the British Government administer much of England's affairs. Responsibility for them is not devolved.

Other departments deal mainly with matters affecting England though they also have some UK wide responsibilities in certain areas;

  • The
    National Health Service in England
    (NHS).
  • The Department for Transport
  • The
    Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport

Other bodies with responsibilities for England alone include:

Coat of arms of the City of London

Local government

Structure of administrative divisions of England
London borough or the City of London
  unitary authority
  two-tier non-metropolitan county
Main articles:
Administrative divisions of England, Metropolitan borough, and Non-metropolitan district
See also:
Local Government in England

For the purposes of local government, England is divided into as many as four levels of administrative divisions. At some levels, various legislation has created alternative types of administrative division.

Districts in England may also have the status of

royal borough
.

The metropolitan counties were divided into metropolitan districts which are usually called boroughs. When the county councils were abolished the metropolitan districts gained much of their powers and therefore function similar to other unitary authorities.

Shire counties are divided into non-metropolitan districts. Power is shared with the county council, but shared differently from the metropolitan counties when first created.

The

civil parish
is the most local unit of government in England. Under the legislation that created Greater London, they are not permitted within its boundary. Not all of the rest of England is parished, though the number of parishes and total area parished is growing.

Political parties

The Green Party of England and Wales has had an amicable split from Scottish counterpart, and the Wales Green Party section is semi-autonomous.

The

English Votes on English Legislation (EVoEL), to prevent non-English constituency MPs voting on exclusively English legislation. Despite 'One Nation' Conservativism, some have flirted[4] with devolution factors like the Barnett-Formula
.

The

Lord Falconer, a Scottish peer claimed a devolved English parliament would dwarf the rest of the United Kingdom.[5]

The Liberal Democrats have nominally separate Scottish, Welsh and English parties.

In spite of seeking independence of the United Kingdom from the European Union, both the UK Independence Party (UKIP) and Reform UK do not support further onward devolution to England, although support scrapping the Barnett formula.

Minor political parties

Most of the parties that only operate within England alone tend to be purely interested in English issues, like

English Parliament. Examples include the English Democrats, One England, the English People's Party, the English Radical Alliance, the England First Party
, and the English Independence Party.

Church of England

The Former Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams.
See also: History of the Church of England

The Church of England is the officially established Christian church[6] in England. King Charles III is the official head of the church, with the title Supreme Governor of the Church of England, while the Archbishop of Canterbury is the head clergyman. The canon law of the Church of England states, "We acknowledge that the King's most excellent Majesty, acting according to the laws of the realm, is the highest power under God in this kingdom, and has supreme authority over all persons in all causes, as well ecclesiastical as civil." In practice this power is often exercised through Parliament and the Prime Minister.

Of the forty-four diocesan

consecration. It may take a diocesan bishop a number of years to reach the House of Lords, at which point he becomes a Lord Spiritual.[7]

Monmouthshire

Main article: Monmouthshire_(historic) § Ambiguity_over_Welsh_status
Location of Monmouthshire in relation to Wales

The historic county of Monmouthshire, lying in the Welsh Marches (the Anglo-Welsh border), is a bone of contention for some English nationalists.[8] Although the county is now mostly in Wales, to add to the confusion, Welsh Bicknor was an exclave of the county, and is in Herefordshire (England). The Welsh Border has historically been more fluid than the Anglo-Scottish border

Monmouthshire's Welsh status was ambiguous until relatively recently, with it often thought of as part of England. The entirety of Wales was made part of the

Marcher Lords
.

The

Knights of the Shire
in common with existing counties in England, rather than one as in the counties in Wales.

The relevant section of the Act states that "one Knight shall be chosen and elected to the same Parliaments for every of the Shires of Brecknock, Radnor, Montgomery and Denbigh, and for every other Shire within the said Country of Dominion of Wales". As Monmouthshire was dealt with separately it cannot be taken to be a shire "within the said Country of Dominion of Wales". The

Laws in Wales Act 1542
specifically enumerates the Welsh counties as twelve in number, excluding Monmouthshire from the count.

The issue was finally clarified in law by the

district of Gwent between 1974 and 1996, and on 1 April 1996, a local government principal area named Monmouthshire
, covering the eastern 60% of the historic county, was created.

However, the issue has not gone completely away, and the English Democrats nominated candidates for the 2007 Welsh Assembly elections in three of six constituencies in the area of the historic county with a view to promoting a referendum on 'Letting Monmouthshire Decide' whether it wished to be part of Wales or England.[10] The party received between 2.2% and 2.7% of the vote (a much lower total than Plaid Cymru) and failed to have any members elected.[11]

Berwick-upon-Tweed

Berwick-upon-Tweed

The status of Berwick, north of the River Tweed is controversial, especially amongst Scottish nationalists.[12] Berwick remained a county in its own right until 1885, when it was included in Northumberland for Parliamentary purposes. The Interpretation Act 1978 provides that in legislation passed between 1967 and 1974, "a reference to England includes Berwick upon Tweed and Monmouthshire".

In 2008, SNP MSP Christine Grahame made calls in the Scottish Parliament for Berwick to become part of Scotland again, saying

"Even the Berwick-upon-Tweed Borough Council leader, who is a Liberal Democrat, backs the idea and others see the merits of reunification with Scotland."[13]

However, Alan Beith, the Liberal Democrat MP for Berwick, said the move would require a massive legal upheaval and is not realistic.[14] However he is contradicted by another member of his party, the Liberal Democrat MSP Jeremy Purvis, who was born and brought up in Berwick. Purvis has asked for the border to be moved twenty miles south (i.e., south of the Tweed) to include Berwick borough council rather than just the town, and has said:

"There's a strong feeling that Berwick should be in Scotland, Until recently, I had a gran in Berwick and another in Kelso, and they could see that there were better public services in Scotland. Berwick as a borough council is going to be abolished and it would then be run from Morpeth, more than 30 miles away.".[15]

According to a poll conducted by a TV company, 60% of residents favoured Berwick rejoining Scotland.[16]

Cornwall

Main articles: Cornish nationalism and Constitutional status of Cornwall

Most English people and the UK government regard Cornwall as a county of England, but Cornish nationalists believe that the Duchy of Cornwall has a status deserving greater autonomy. Campaigners including Mebyon Kernow, a Cornish nationalist party, and all five Cornish Liberal Democrat MPs oppose participation in the South West Regional Assembly alongside Devon, Dorset, Gloucestershire, Somerset and Wiltshire in favour of a democratically elected Cornish Assembly.[17][18][19]

See also

Sources

Footnotes

  1. ^ C.Warren Hollister, The Making of England, 55 B.C. to 1399 (7th ed. 1996) p 82
  2. ^ "English vote plan to become law despite objections". BBC News. 22 October 2015.
  3. ^ eGov monitor – Planning transfer undermines democracy Archived 19 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine. 29 November 2007
  4. ^ "Johnson accused of 'dubious U-turn' after saying he would keep funding formula he previously criticised".
  5. ^ "No English parliament – Falconer". BBC News. 10 March 2006. Retrieved 20 January 2008.
  6. ^ "The History of the Church of England". The Archbishops' Council of the Church of England. Retrieved 24 May 2006.
  7. ^ House of Lords: alphabetical list of Members Archived 2 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 12 December 2008.
  8. ^ "Monmouth Web Community - History - Wales". Archived from the original on 4 February 2005.
  9. ^ Local government Act 1972 (c.70), sections 1, 20 and 269
  10. ^ "English Democrats Party Campaigning for an English Parliament". Archived from the original on 7 August 2018.
  11. ^ "Election 2007 | Welsh Assembly | Election Result: Wales". BBC NEWS. 7 May 2007. Archived from the original on 11 November 2022.
  12. ^ Kerr, Rachel (8 October 2004). "A tale of one town". BBC News. Archived from the original on 10 July 2012.
  13. ^ "'Return to fold' call for Berwick". BBC News. 10 February 2008. Archived from the original on 1 May 2023.
  14. ^ Hamilton, Alan (13 February 2008). "Berwick thinks it's time to change sides ... again". The Times. London. Retrieved 14 February 2008.[dead link]
  15. ^ The Sunday Post, 10 February 2008, Scots plan to capture 20 miles of England
  16. ^ TV poll backs Berwick border move BBC News, 17 February 2008
  17. ^ MP Andrew George campaigns for a Cornish Assembly Archived 28 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  18. ^ 50,000 petition for Cornish Assembly
  19. ^ Cornish Lib Dems support the proposal for a Cornish Assembly Archived 28 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine

References

  • Dicey & Morris (1993). The Conflict of Laws. Sweet & Maxwell.
    ISBN 0-420-48280-6
    .
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