Politics of New Zealand

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Organisational chart of the New Zealand political system
Politics of New Zealand
Constitution
The Crown
Executive government
Legislature
54th New Zealand Parliament
Elections
Judiciary
Local government
Foreign relations
Ideology
Related topics
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The politics of New Zealand (

parliamentary democracy. The system of government is based on the Westminster system, and the legal system is modelled on the common law of England. New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy in which King Charles III is the sovereign and head of state, while his prime minister serves as the head of government
.

The

confidence-and-supply agreements
with other parties in the House of Representatives.

Executive power in New Zealand is based on the principle that while the King reigns, the Government rules.[1] Although an integral part of the process of government, the King and his governor-general remain politically neutral and are not personally involved in the everyday aspects of governing. The New Zealand Government exercises authority on behalf of and by the consent of the sovereign. Government is made up of ministers, who are selected from among MPs and accountable to Parliament. Most ministers are members of the Cabinet, which is the main decision-making body of the Government. It is headed by the prime minister, who is the most senior minister formally appointed by the governor-general. Other ministers are appointed by the governor-general on the advice of the head of government.

According to the

government transparency and had the second lowest perceived level of corruption in the world in 2022.[3]

Legal framework

Main article: Constitution of New Zealand

New Zealand is a

three branches of government in New Zealand: the executive (the Sovereign and the Executive Council), the legislature (Parliament) and the judiciary (Courts).[7]

Legislature

Main article: New Zealand Parliament
Main office-holders
Office Name Party Since
King Charles III 8 September 2022
Governor-General Dame Cindy Kiro 21 October 2021
Speaker of the House Gerry Brownlee National 5 December 2023
Leader of the House Chris Bishop National 27 November 2023

Parliament is responsible for passing laws, adopting the annual Budget, and exercising control of the executive government.[8] It currently has a single chamber, the House of Representatives. Before 1951 there was a second chamber, the Legislative Council.[9] The House of Representatives meets in Parliament House, Wellington.[10]

Edwardian neoclassical building in grey stone with classic colonnade entry on grand stairs
Parliament House is the home of the House of Representatives

Laws are first proposed to the House of Representatives as

statutory law).[11]

The

parliamentary dissolution and an early general election.[16]

Elections

Further information: Elections in New Zealand and Electoral system of New Zealand

Almost all parliamentary elections between

political parties, National and Labour.[17]

Public criticism of the FPP system began in the 1950s and intensified after Labour lost elections in

seats,[12] though some elections have resulted in overhang, as is currently the case (as of December 2023).[20] In the first eight elections under MMP, from 1996 to 2017, no party won a majority of seats.[21]

Seven electorates are reserved for MPs elected on a separate Māori roll. However, Māori may choose to vote in and to run for the non-reserved electorates and for the party list (since 1996), and as a result many have now entered Parliament outside of the reserved seats.[22]

Party politics

Main article: List of political parties in New Zealand
Ballot showing parties, 2011 general election

The first organised political party in New Zealand was founded in 1891, and its main rival was founded in 1909—New Zealand had a de facto two-party system from that point until the adoption of MMP in 1996.[23] Since then New Zealand has been a multi-party system, with at least five parties elected in every general election since. By rarely producing an overall majority for one party, MMP also ensures that parties need to come to an agreement with other parties to pass laws.[24] In the late 1990s, a phenomenon called "waka-jumping" emerged as MPs increasingly switched their party allegiance while in Parliament, prompting the implementation of a 2001 law mandating the resignation of waka-jumping MPs; this legislation expired in 2005, but a renewed effort to prevent waka-jumping emerged with the passage of the Electoral (Integrity) Amendment Act 2018.[21]

Historically the two largest, and oldest, parties are the

nationalist), and Te Pāti Māori (indigenous rights-based).[28]

Parties must register with the Electoral Commission in order to contest the party vote in an election.[29]

The table below summarises the results of the latest general election.

Summary of the 14 October 2023 election for the House of Representatives[30]
Party Party vote Electorate vote sum Total
seats 		+/-
Votes Of total
(%) 		Change
(
pp
) 		Seats Votes Of total
(%) 		Change
(
pp
) 		Seats
National 1,085,851 38.08 Increase12.51 5 1,192,251 43.47 Increase9.34 43 48 Increase 16
Labour 767,540 26.92 Decrease23.09 17 855,963 31.21 Decrease16.86 17 34 Decrease 31
Green 330,907 11.61 Increase3.75 12 226,575 8.26 Increase2.52 3 15 Increase 5
ACT 246,473 8.64 Increase1.06 9 149,507 5.45 Increase1.99 2 11 Increase 1
NZ First 173,553 6.09 Increase3.49 8 76,676 2.80 Increase1.73 0 8 Increase 8
Te Pāti Māori 87,844 3.08 Increase1.92 0 106,584 3.89 Increase1.73 6 6 Increase 4
Opportunities (TOP) 63,344 2.22 Increase0.72 0 27,975 1.02 Increase0.13 0 0 Steady
New Zealand Loyal 34,478 1.20 new 0 32,240 1.18 new 0 0 new
NewZeal[a] 16,126 0.56 Increase0.28 0 3,585 0.13 Decrease0.11 0 0 Steady
Legalise Cannabis 13,025 0.45 Steady0.00 0 12,566 0.46 Increase0.17 0 0 Steady
Freedoms NZ 9,586 0.33 Increase0.08 0 0 0 Steady
DemocracyNZ 6,786 0.23 new 0 12,060 0.44 new 0 0 new
Animal Justice 5,018 0.17 new 0 5,829 0.21 new 0 0 new
New Conservative
 4,532 0.15 Decrease1.32 0 3,167 0.12 Decrease1.64 0 0 Steady
Women's Rights
 2,513 0.08 new 0 0 0.00 new 0 0 new
Leighton Baker Party
 2,105 0.07 new 0 2,623 0.10 new 0 0 new
New Nation 1,530 0.05 new 0 433 0.02 new 0 0 new
Unregistered parties
Independent 34,277 1.25 Increase0.87
Valid votes 2,851,211 2,742,677
Informal votes 16,267 40,353
Disallowed votes 16,633 59,043
Below electoral threshold
Total 2,884,111 100.00 51 2,842,073 100.00 71 122
Eligible voters and turnout 3,688,292 78.20 Decrease4.04 3,688,292 77.06 Decrease5.18
  1. ^ Formerly known as ONE Party.

Party funding

Main article: Political funding in New Zealand

In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the importance of political party funding as a public policy concern. To address this, specific regulations have been implemented to set limits on foreign donations, ensuring that they do not exceed NZ$50[31] and placing restrictions on anonymous donations, which are limited to a maximum of NZ$1,500. These limitations aim to promote transparency and accountability in the political process by curbing the potential influence of foreign and anonymous contributions.[32]

Executive Government

Further information: New Zealand Government
A circular, latticed building resembling a natural beehive (skep).
The Beehive is the seat of the New Zealand Government
Main office-holders
Dame Cindy Kiro
since
21 October 2021
The Prime Minister of New Zealand:
Christopher Luxon

since
27 November 2023

King Charles III is New Zealand's sovereign and head of state.[7][33] The New Zealand monarchy has been legally distinct from the British monarchy following the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947, and all Charles III's official business in New Zealand is conducted in the name of the "King of New Zealand".[34][35] The King's role is largely ceremonial, and his residual powers—called collectively the "royal prerogative"—are mostly exercised through the government of the day. These include the power to enact legislation, to sign treaties and to declare war.[36]

Since the King is not usually resident in New Zealand,

advise the governor-general on the exercising of the prerogative powers. Members of the Executive Council are required to be members of Parliament (MPs), and most are also in the Cabinet.[41]

Cabinet is the senior decision-making body in Government, led by the prime minister (currently Christopher Luxon[42]), who is also, by convention, the parliamentary leader of the largest governing party.[43] The prime minister, being the de facto leader of New Zealand, exercises executive functions that are formally vested in the sovereign (by way of the prerogative powers).[36] Ministers within Cabinet make major decisions collectively, and are therefore collectively responsible for the consequences of these decisions.[44]

For

supply bills. While it is rare for a single party to have an outright majority, coalitions may be formed between parties;[46] even if a single party or coalition lacks a majority, it can form a Cabinet with agreed confidence and supply from minor parties.[47] After a government is formed, it also requires practical support from a majority for government bills to be enacted.[48] Parties in government are said to have a "mandate" from voters and authority to implement manifestos (although this view has been criticised as being simplistic when applied to coalition arrangements).[49] The National Party won the largest number of seats in the 2023 general election and, following negotiations, formed a majority three-party coalition government with the ACT and NZ First parties.[50]

Since November 2023[update], the Labour Party has formed the

parliamentary questions, non-government bills, and the possibility of no-confidence motions.[51]

Judiciary

Main article: Judiciary of New Zealand
See also: Judicial review in New Zealand
The Supreme Court building, Wellington

The New Zealand judiciary has four basic levels of courts:[52]

The Supreme Court was established in 2004, under the

court of last resort.[54] The High Court deals with serious criminal offences and civil matters, and hears appeals from subordinate courts. The Court of Appeal hears appeals from the High Court on points of law.[52]

The chief justice, the head of the judiciary, presides over the Supreme Court, and is appointed by the governor-general on the advice of the prime minister.[55] As of 2019 the incumbent Chief Justice is Dame Helen Winkelmann.[56] All other superior court judges are appointed on the advice of the chief justice, the attorney-general, and the solicitor-general.[55][57] Judges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain judicial independence from the executive government.[55] Judges are appointed according to their qualifications, personal qualities, and relevant experience.[57] A judge may not be removed from office except by the attorney-general upon an address of the House of Representatives for proved misbehaviour.[55]

New Zealand law has three principal sources: English common law, certain statutes of the United Kingdom Parliament enacted before 1947 (notably the Bill of Rights 1689), and statutes of the New Zealand Parliament.[58] In interpreting common law, the courts have endeavoured to preserve uniformity with common law as interpreted in the United Kingdom and related jurisdictions.[59]

Local government

Main article: Local government in New Zealand

New Zealand is a unitary state rather than a federation—local government has only the powers conferred upon it by the national Parliament.[60] These powers have traditionally been distinctly fewer than in some other countries; for example, police and education are run by central government.[61] Local government is established by statute, with the first Municipal Corporations Act having been passed by the Legislative Council in 1842. Local governance is currently defined by the Local Government Act 2002.[4]

city and district councillors, including mayors, and community board members.[62]

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of New Zealand
Former New Zealand Prime Minister Helen Clark served as administrator of the United Nations Development Programme, a senior official at the UN, from 2009 to 2017.

New Zealand maintains a network of 32 embassies, 20

free-trade agreements, most prominently Closer Economic Relations with Australia[69] and the New Zealand–China Free Trade Agreement.[70]

Historically New Zealand

New Zealand's nuclear-free policy), New Zealand has maintained good working relations with the United States[72]
and Australia on a broad array of international issues.

Political culture

See also: Human rights in New Zealand, Corruption in New Zealand, and Culture of New Zealand § Attitudes

Political change in New Zealand has been gradual and pragmatic, rather than revolutionary.

civic participation in the political process, with 82% voter turnout during recent elections, compared with the OECD average of 69%.[82]

Human rights remain a central focus in New Zealand politics, with a strong commitment to ensuring the protection and promotion of individual freedoms and equality.

New Zealand Human Rights Commission asserts there is clear evidence that structural discrimination is a real and ongoing socioeconomic issue,[84] exemplified by Māori overrepresentation in the criminal justice system, comprising 45% of convicted individuals and 53% of those imprisoned.[85][86] Political redress for historical grievances is also ongoing (see § Māori politics and legislation
).

Since the 1970s, New Zealand has shown a more socially liberal outlook.[76] Beginning with the decriminalisation of homosexuality in 1986,[76][87] successive governments have progressively increased the protection of LGBT rights, culminating in the legalisation of same-sex marriage in 2013.[88] In 2020, the Abortion Legislation Act, which fully decriminalised abortion in New Zealand, was supported by members across all parties in Parliament.[89]

The idea of serving as a moral example to the world has been an important element of New Zealand national identity. The opposition to apartheid in South Africa in the 1970s and 1980s,[90] protests against French nuclear testing at Moruroa atoll in the 1970s, and popular support for New Zealand's anti-nuclear policy in the 1980s (see § Modern political history) are manifestations of this. From the 1990s New Zealand's anti-nuclear position has become a key element of government policy (irrespective of party) and of the country's "distinctive political identity".[76]

History

Main article: Political history of New Zealand

Pre-colonial politics

Further information: Māori politics § Pre-colonial Māori governance

Prior to New Zealand becoming a British colony in 1840, politics in New Zealand was dominated by Māori chiefs as leaders of

Māori customs as a political system.[91]

Colonial politics

Manuscript copy of the Treaty of Waitangi (in Māori)

After the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi, a colonial governor and his small staff acted on behalf of the British Government based on the British political system.[92] Whereas Māori systems had dominated prior to 1840, governors attempting to introduce British systems met with mixed success in Māori communities. More isolated Māori were little influenced by the Government. Most influences were felt in and around Russell, the first capital, and Auckland, the second capital.

The first voting rights in New Zealand were legislated in 1852 as the New Zealand Constitution Act for the 1853 elections and reflected contemporary British practice.[92] The electoral franchise was limited to property-owning male British subjects over 21 years old. The property qualification was relatively liberal in New Zealand compared to Britain, such that by the late 1850s 75% of adult New Zealand European males were eligible to vote, compared to 20% in England and 12% in Scotland.[93] Around 100 Māori chiefs voted in the 1853 election.[94]

During the 1850s

Victoria at Eureka. Many gold miners had moved to the New Zealand fields bringing their radical ideas. The extended franchise was modelled on the Victorian system.[95] In 1863 the mining franchise was extended to goldfield business owners. In 1870, the number of registered voters was only 41,500, but an additional 20,000 miners were also entitled to vote.[95]

After the brief Land War period ending in 1864, Parliament moved to extend the franchise to more Māori. Donald McLean introduced a bill for four temporary Māori electorates and extended the franchise to all Māori men over 21 in 1867. As such, Māori were universally franchised 12 years prior to European men.[95]

In 1879 an

mana—the Government or the Parihaka protestors.[99]

Richard Seddon's statue stands outside Parliament buildings in Wellington.

In 1882 the export of meat in the first refrigerated ship started a period of sustained economic export-led growth. This period is notable for the influence of new social ideas and movements such as the

Fabians and the creation in 1890 of the first political party, the Liberals. Their leader, former gold miner Richard Seddon from Lancashire, was premier from 1893 to 1906. The Liberals introduced new taxes to break the influence of the wealthy conservative sheep farm owners. They also purchased more land from Māori.[100] (By 1910, Māori in parts of the North Island retained very little land, and the amount of Māori land would decrease precipitously as a result of government purchases.[101]
)

The early 20th century saw the rise of the

trade union movement and labour parties (see Socialism in New Zealand § Unions and workers' parties), which represented organised workers. The West Coast town of Blackball is often regarded as the birthplace of the labour movement in New Zealand,[102]
as it was the location of the founding of one of the main political organisations which became part of the New Zealand Labour Party.

Māori politics and legislation

Main article: Māori politics
See also: Māori protest movement

Māori political affairs have been developing through legislation

te reo Māori
 and English—the act itself affirms the equal legal status of te reo.

Women in politics

Further information: Women's suffrage in New Zealand
See also: Women in New Zealand
suffragist
.

Women's suffrage was granted after about two decades of campaigning by women such as

Women's Christian Temperance Union. On 19 September 1893 the governor, Lord Glasgow, signed a new Electoral Act into law.[106] As a result, New Zealand became the first self-governing nation in the world in which all women had the right to vote in parliamentary elections.[15] Women first voted in the 1893 election, with a high 85% turnout (compared to 70% of men).[107]

Women were not eligible to be elected to the House of Representatives until 1919 though, when three women, including Ellen Melville stood. The first woman to win an election (to the seat held by her late husband) was Elizabeth McCombs in 1933.[106] Mabel Howard became the first female cabinet minister in 1947, being appointed to the First Labour Government.[108]

New Zealand was the first country in the world in which all the highest offices were occupied by women, between March 2005 and August 2006: the Sovereign

Queen Elizabeth II, Governor-General Dame Silvia Cartwright, Prime Minister Helen Clark, Speaker of the House Margaret Wilson, and Chief Justice Dame Sian Elias.[109][110]

After the 2020 election, women made up half of the 120 MPs in the House of Representatives, marking the highest level of women's political representation since they were first allowed to stand for Parliament in 1919.[111][112]

Modern political history

See also: List of New Zealand governments
Sixth National Government of New ZealandSixth Labour Government of New ZealandFifth National Government of New ZealandFifth Labour Government of New ZealandFourth National Government of New ZealandFourth Labour Government of New ZealandThird National Government of New ZealandThird Labour Government of New ZealandSecond National Government of New ZealandSecond Labour Government of New ZealandFirst National Government of New ZealandFirst Labour Government of New Zealand

The right-leaning

social security, a large scale public works programme, a forty-hour working week, and compulsory unionism.[113][114] The National Party won control of the government in 1949, accepting most of Labour's welfare measures. Except for two brief periods of Labour governments in 1957–1960 and 1972–1975, National held power until 1984.[114]

The greatest challenge to the first and later Labour governments' policies on the welfare state and a regulated economy that combined state and private enterprise came from the Labour Party itself.

New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act, banning visits by nuclear powered ships; the implementation of a nuclear-free zone brought about New Zealand's suspension from the ANZUS security alliance with the United States and Australia.[118]

In October 1990, the National Party again formed a government, for the first of three three-year terms. Despite promises to halt the unpopular reform process, the new National government largely advanced the free-market policies of the preceding government. Public disillusionment resulting from perceived "broken promises" of the previous two governments fuelled demand for electoral reform in New Zealand.[119] In 1996, New Zealand inaugurated the new electoral system (mixed-member proportional representation, or MMP) to elect its Parliament.[120] The MMP system was expected (among numerous other goals) to increase representation of smaller parties in Parliament and appears to have done so in the MMP elections to date. Between 1996 and 2020, neither National nor Labour had an absolute majority in Parliament, and for all but two of those years a minority government ruled (however, every government has been led by one or other of the two main parties).[121]

MMP parliaments have been markedly more diverse, with greater representation of women, and ethnic minorities and other minority groups.[122] In 1996, Tim Barnett was the first of several New Zealand MPs to be elected as an openly gay person.[123] In 1999, Georgina Beyer became the world's first openly transgender MP elected to a national parliament.[124][125]

After nine years in government, the National Party lost the

Māori Party.[128] Following the 2005 general election on 17 September 2005, negotiations between parties culminated in Clark announcing a third consecutive term of Labour-led government. The Labour Party again formed a coalition with the Progressive Party, with confidence and supply from Winston Peters' New Zealand First and Peter Dunne's United Future.[129]

After the general election in November 2008, the National Party moved quickly to form a minority government with ACT, the Māori Party and United Future. This arrangement allowed National to decrease its reliance on the right-wing ACT party, whose free-market policies are sometimes controversial with the greater New Zealand public. In 2008, John Key was appointed prime minister, with Bill English his deputy. This arrangement conformed to a tradition of having a north–south split in the major parties' leadership, as Key's residence is in Auckland and English's electorate is in the South Island. On 12 December 2016, English was elected as leader, and thus prime minister, by the National Party caucus after Key's unexpected resignation a week earlier. Paula Bennett (member for Upper Harbour) was appointed deputy prime minister, thus continuing the tradition.[130][original research?] This north–south arrangement ceased with the next government.

Following the

landslide and gained an overall majority of seats in Parliament, sufficient to govern alone—a first under the MMP system.[133][134] Labour's coalition partner New Zealand First lost its representation in Parliament.[135] Ardern's government was sworn in for a second term on 6 November 2020.[133] Chris Hipkins became prime minister after the Ardern's resignation.[136]

The 2023 general election saw the worst defeat of a sitting government since the introduction of the MMP system, with Labour losing nearly half of its seats.[137] Subsequently, National, ACT and New Zealand First formed the country's first three-party coalition government. National leader Christopher Luxon became prime minister. In another first, Winston Peters and David Seymour will take turns as deputy prime minister.[50]

See also

References

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Sources

Further reading

External links
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