Polynesian languages
Polynesian | |
---|---|
Geographic distribution | Polynesia |
Linguistic classification | Austronesian
|
Proto-language | Proto-Polynesian |
Subdivisions | |
Rapa Nui )Pink: Western Fijian-Rotuman Languages |
The Polynesian languages form a genealogical group of languages, itself part of the Oceanic branch of the Austronesian family.
There are 38 Polynesian languages, representing 7 percent of the 522 Oceanic languages, and 3 percent of the Austronesian family.
The ancestors of modern Polynesians were
Still today, Polynesian languages show strong similarity, particularly
Internal classification
Phylogenetic classification
Polynesian languages fall into two branches, Tongic and Nuclear Polynesian. Tongan and Niuean constitute the Tongic branch; all the rest are part of the Nuclear Polynesian branch.[3]
- Polynesian
- Nuclear Polynesian
- Ellicean
- Ellicean–Outlier
- Tuvaluan
- Nukuoro (Nukuoro in the Federated States of Micronesia)
- Kapingamarangi (on Kapingamarangi in Federated States of Micronesia)
- Nukuria (Nuguria in eastern Papua New Guinea)[4]
- Takuu (Takuu Atoll in eastern Papua New Guinea)
- Nukumanu in the east of Papua New Guinea)
- Ontong Java, Solomon Islands)
- Sikaiana (Sikaiana, Solomon Islands)
- Pileni (Reef Islands, Solomon Islands)
- Samoic
- Ellicean–Outlier
- Eastern Polynesian
- Rapa Nui (Easter Island)
- Central–Eastern Polynesian
- Marquesic
- Tahitic
- Tahitian (Society Islands, French Polynesia)
- Austral (Austral Islands, French Polynesia)
- Rapa (Rapa Iti, French Polynesia)
- Tuamotu Archipelago, French Polynesia)
- Rarotongan (Cook Islands Māori, Cook Islands)
- Rakahanga-Manihiki (Rakahanga and Manihiki, Northern Cook Islands)
- Tongareva, Northern Cook Islands)
- Māori (New Zealand)
- Moriori (Chatham Islands, New Zealand) †
- Futunic (?):
- Wallisian or East Uvean (Fakaʻuvea) (Wallis Island, Wallis and Futuna)
- Futunan or East Futunan (Fakafutuna) (Futuna Island, Wallis and Futuna)
- West Uvean or Faga Uvea (Ouvéa off New Caledonia)
- Pukapukan (Pukapuka, northern Cook Islands)
- Anuta (Anuta Island, Solomon Islands)
- Rennellese (Rennell and Bellona island, Solomon Islands)
- Tikopia (Tikopia Island, Solomon Islands)
- Vaeakau-Taumako (?) (Reef Islands and Taumako island, Solomon Islands)
- Futuna-Aniwa or West Futunan (Futuna and Aniwa in Vanuatu)
- Mele Island, Vanuatu)
- Emae (Emae Island, Vanuatu)
- Ellicean
- Tongic
- Nuclear Polynesian
History of classification
The contemporary classification of the Polynesian languages began with certain observations by Andrew Pawley in 1966 based on shared innovations in phonology, vocabulary and grammar showing that the East Polynesian languages were more closely related to Samoan than they were to Tongan, calling Tongan and its nearby relative Niuean "Tongic" and Samoan and all other Polynesian languages of the study "Nuclear Polynesian".[5]
Previously, there had been lexicostatistical studies[6][7] that squarely suggested a "West Polynesian" group composed of at least Tongan and Samoan and that an "East Polynesian" group was equally distant from both Tongan and Samoan. Lexicostatistics is a controversial[citation needed] tool that can identify points in languages from which linguistic relations can be inferred[clarify]. Since Pawley's 1966 publication, inferring the ancient relationships of the Polynesian languages has proceeded by the more diagnostic findings of studies employing the comparative method[clarify] and the proofs of shared innovations.
Pawley published another study in 1967.
Except for some minor differentiation of the East Polynesian tree, further study paused for almost twenty years until Wilson
Marck,[10] in 2000, was able to offer some support for some aspects of Wilson's suggestion through comparisons of shared sporadic (irregular, unexpected) sound changes, e. g., Proto-Polynesian and Proto-Nuclear-Polynesian *mafu 'to heal' becoming Proto-Ellicean *mafo. This was made possible by the massive Polynesian language comparative lexicon ("Pollex" – with reconstructions) of Biggs and Clark.[11]
Internal correspondences
Partly because Polynesian languages split from one another comparatively recently, many words in these languages remain similar to corresponding words in others. The table below demonstrates this with the words for 'sky', 'north wind', 'woman', 'house' and 'parent' in a representative selection of languages:
(Rarotongan).Tongan | Niuean | Samoan | Sikaiana | Takuu | North Marquesan | South Marquesan | Mangarevan | Hawaiian | Rapanui | Tahitian | Māori | Rarotongan | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
sky | /laŋi/ | /laŋi/ | /laŋi/ | /lani/ | /ɾani/ | /ʔaki/ | /ʔani/ | /ɾaŋi/ | /lani/ | /ɾaŋi/ | /ɾaʔi/ | /ɾaŋi/ | /ɾaŋi/ |
north wind | /tokelau/ | /tokelau/ | /toʔelau/ | /tokelau/ | /tokoɾau/ | /tokoʔau/ | /tokoʔau/ | /tokeɾau/ | /koʔolau/ | /tokeɾau/ | /toʔeɾau/ | /tokeɾau/ | /tokeɾau/ |
woman | /fefine/ | /fifine/ | /fafine/ | /hahine/ | /ffine/ | /vehine/ | /vehine/ | /veine/ | /wahine/ | /vahine/ | /wahine/ | /vaʔine/ | |
house | /fale/ | /fale/ | /fale/ | /hale/ | /faɾe/ | /haʔe/ | /haʔe/ | /faɾe/ | /hale/ | /haɾe/ | /faɾe/ | /ɸaɾe/ | /ʔaɾe/ |
parent | /maːtuʔa/ | /motua/ | /matua/ | /maatua/ | /motua/ | /motua/ | /matua/ | /makua/ | /matuʔa/ | /metua/ | /matua/ | /metua/ |
Certain regular correspondences can be noted between different Polynesian languages. For example, the Māori sounds /k/, /ɾ/, /t/, and /ŋ/ correspond to /ʔ/, /l/, /k/, and /n/ in Hawaiian. Accordingly, "man" is tangata in Māori and kanaka in Hawaiian, and Māori roa "long" corresponds to Hawaiian loa. The famous Hawaiian greeting aloha corresponds to Māori aroha, "love, tender emotion". Similarly, the Hawaiian word for kava is ʻawa.
Similarities in basic vocabulary may allow speakers from different island groups to achieve a significant degree of understanding of each other's speech. When a particular language shows unexpectedly large divergence in vocabulary, this may be the result of a name-avoidance taboo situation – see examples in Tahitian, where this has happened often.
Many Polynesian languages have been greatly affected by European colonization. Both Māori and Hawaiian, for example, have lost many speakers to English, and only since the 1990s have they resurged in popularity.[12][13]
Grammatical characteristics
Personal pronouns
In general, Polynesian languages have three
a and o possession
Many Polynesian languages distinguish two
Numerals in Polynesian languages
Numerals:[15]
English | one | two | three | four | five | six | seven | eight | nine | ten |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Proto-Polynesian
|
*tasi | *rua | *tolu | *fa | *rima | *ono | *fitu | *walu | *hiwa | *haŋafulu |
Tongan | taha | ua | tolu | fa | nima | ono | fitu | valu | hiva | hongofulu |
Niuean | taha | ua | tolu | fā | lima | ono | fitu | valu | hiva | hogofulu |
Samoan | tasi | lua | tolu | fa | lima | ono | fitu | valu | iva | sefulu |
Tokelauan | tahi | lua | tolu | fa | lima | ono | fitu | valu | iva | hefulu |
Tuvaluan | tasi | lua | tolu | fa | lima | ono | fitu | valu | iva | agafulu |
Kapingamarangi | dahi | lua | dolu | haa | lima | ono | hidu | walu | hiwa | mada |
Ontong Java | kahi | lua | kolu | hā | lima | oŋo | hiku | valu | sivo | sehui |
Takuu | tasi | lua | toru | fa | rima | ono | fitu | varu | sivo | sinafuru |
Pileni | tasi | rua | toru | fā | lima | ono | fitu | valu | iva | kʰaro |
Sikaiana | tahi | lua | tolu | hā | lima | ono | hitu | valo | sivo | sehui |
Marquesan | e tahi | e úa | e toú | e fa | e íma | e ono | e fitu | e vaú | e iva | ónohuú |
Hawaiian | ‘e-kahi | ‘e-lua | ‘e-kolu | ‘e-hā | ‘e-lima | ‘e-ono | ‘e-hiku | ‘e-walu | ‘e-iwa | ‘umi |
Mangareva | tahi | rua | toru | ha | rima | ono | hitu | varu | iva | rogouru |
Rapa Nui | tahi | rua | toru | ha | rima | ono | hitu | vaʼu | iva | ʼahuru |
Maori | tahi | rua | toru | whā | rima | ono | whitu | waru | iwa | tekau (also ngahuru) |
Tahitian | tahi | piti | toru | maha | pae | ōno | hitu | vaʼu | iva | hōeʼahuru |
Rarotongan | taʼi | rua | toru | ā | rima | ono | ʼitu | varu | iva | ngaʼuru |
Tuamotuan | tahi | rua | toru | fā | rima | ono | hitu | varu | iva | rongoʼuru |
Penrhyn | tahi | lua | tolu | hā | lima | ono | hitu | valu | iva | tahi-ngahulu |
Moriori | tehi | teru | toru | tewha | terima | teono | tewhitu | tewaru | teiwa | meangauru |
Anuta | tai | rua | toru | paa | nima | ono | pitu | varu | iva | puangapuru |
Emae | tasi | rua | toru | fa | rima | ono | fitu | βaru | siβa | ŋafuru |
Futuna-Aniwa | tasi | rua | toru | fa | rima | ono | fitu | varo | iva | tagafuru |
Mele | tasi | rua | toru | fa | rima | ono | fitu | βaru | siβa | siŋafuru |
Nanumea | tahi | lua | tolu | fā | lima | ono | fitu | valu | iva | toa |
Nukuoro | dahi | ka-lua | ka-dolu | ka-haa | ka-lima | ka-ono | ka-hidu | ka-valu | ka-siva | ka-hulu |
Pukapuka | tayi | lua | tolu | wa | lima | ono | witu | valu | iva | laugaulu |
Rennellese | tahi | ŋgua | toŋgu | hā | ŋgima | ono | hitu | baŋgu | iba | katoa |
Tikopia | tasi | rua | toru | fa | rima | ono | fitu | varu | siva | fuaŋafuru |
Wallisian | tahi | lua | tolu | fā | nima | ono | fitu | valu | hiva | hogofulu |
West Uvea | tahi | ƚua | toƚu | fa | lima | tahia-tupu | luaona-tupu | toluona-tupu | faona-tupu | limaona-tupu |
Orthography
Written Polynesian languages use orthography based on
This situation persists in many languages. Despite efforts at reform by local academies, the general conservative resistance to orthographic change has led to varying results in Polynesian languages, and several writing variants co-exist. The most common method, however, uses a macron to indicate a long vowel, while a vowel without that diacritical mark is short, for example, ā versus a. Sometimes, a long vowel is written double, e.g. Maaori.
The
Notes and references
Notes
- ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Polynesian languages". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History..
- ISBN 0-313-24522-3. Retrieved 21 August 2010.
- OCLC 48929366.
- ^ Marck, Jeff (2000). "Topics in Polynesian languages and culture history" (PDF). Pacific Linguistics. Canberra.
- JSTOR 20704348.
- JSTOR 3628573.
- JSTOR 20704084.
- JSTOR 20704480.
- JSTOR 3623064.
- ^ Marck, Jeff (2000), Topics in Polynesian languages and culture history. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
- ^ Biggs, Bruce (1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994) and Bruce Biggs and Ross Clark (1996), Pollex: Comparative Polynesian Lexicon (computer data base). Auckland: Department of Anthropology, University of Auckland.
- ^ Eleanor Ainge Roy (28 July 2018). "'Māori has gone mainstream': the resurgence of New Zealand's te reo language". The Guardian. Retrieved 22 September 2020.
- ^ Sara Kehaulani Goo (22 July 2019). "The Hawaiian Language Nearly Died. A Radio Show Sparked Its Revival". NPR. Retrieved 22 September 2020.
- ^ Indeed Fijian, a language closely related to Polynesian, has singular, dual, paucal, and plural; and even there we may see the paucal replacing the plural in generations to come, as the paucal currently can be used for a group from 3 up to as many as 10, usually with some family, workgroup or other association.
- ^ "The Numbers List". www.zompist.com. Retrieved 2022-09-20.
See also
- Proto-Polynesian language – the reconstructed ancestral language from which modern Polynesian languages are derived.
- ʻOkina – a glyph shaped like (but distinct from) an apostrophe: used to represent the glottal-stop consonant in some Polynesian Latin-based scripts.
- Rapanui).
- List of English words of Polynesian origin
Further reading
- Edward Tregear (1891). The Maori-Polynesian comparative dictionary. Lyon and Blair. pp. 675. Retrieved 2011-07-21.
- Edward Tregear (1891). The Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary. Lyon and Blair. at archive.org.
- Edward Tregear (1895). A Paumotuan dictionary with Polynesian comparatives. Whitcombe & Tombs Limited. pp. 76. Retrieved 2011-07-21.
Bibliography
- Charpentier, Jean-Michel; François, Alexandre (2015). Atlas linguistique de Polynésie française – Linguistic Atlas of French Polynesia (in French and English). Mouton de Gruyter & Université de la Polynésie française. ISBN 978-3-11-026035-9.
- Irwin, Geoffrey (1992). The Prehistoric Exploration and Colonisation of the Pacific. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Krupa V. (1975–1982). Polynesian Languages, Routledge and Kegan Paul
- Lynch, J. (1998). Pacific Languages: an Introduction. University of Hawai'i Press.
- Lynch, John, Malcolm Ross & Terry Crowley (2002). The Oceanic languages. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press.
- Marck, Jeff (2000), Topics in Polynesian languages and culture history. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
- Silva, Diego B (2019). Language policy in Oceania. Alfa, Rev. Linguíst 63 (2).