Polyxenida
Polyxenida Temporal range:
| |
---|---|
Polyxenus lagurus | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Arthropoda |
Subphylum: | Myriapoda |
Class: | Diplopoda |
Subclass: | Penicillata Latrielle, 1831 |
Order: | Polyxenida Verhoeff, 1934 |
Families | |
Synonyms | |
Subclass |
Polyxenida is an
Description
Polyxenida differ from other millipedes in having a soft, non-calcified
Defense
Bristly millipedes lack the chemical defenses and hard exoskeleton of other millipedes,[3] and instead employ a unique defense mechanism: the distinctive barbed bristles can easily detach and become entangled in the limbs and mouth-parts of predatory insects, effectively immobilizing them.[4]
Reproduction
Male Polyxenidans lack the modified sperm-transferring appendages (gonopods) found in most other millipede groups. As a result, sperm transfer is indirect: males deposit a spermatophore that is subsequently picked up by females.[5]
Many species reproduce asexually by way of parthenogenesis, wherein females lay eggs without mating and males are absent or rare.[6]
Classification
Polyxenida is the only
In 2003 the Polyxenida contained 159 valid species and/or subspecies,[10] although at least eight new species have been described since 2010.[7][11][12]
- Superfamily Polyxenoidea Lucas, 1840
- Hypogexenidae Schubart, 1947
- Lophoproctidae Silvestri, 1897
- Polyxenidae Lucas, 1840
- Superfamily Synxenoidea Silvestri, 1923
- Synxenidae Silvestri, 1923
Fossil history
The earliest representatives of Polyxenida are found in Lebanese amber from the Early Cretaceous period.[13]
Some authors place the extinct orders
References
- .
- .
- ^ Shelley, Rowland M. "The Myriapoda (Millipedes, Centipedes) Featuring the North American Fauna". Retrieved 12 October 2013.
- PMID 8855269.
- ^ Shelley, Rowland M. (1999). "Centipedes and Millipedes with Emphasis on North American Fauna". The Kansas School Naturalist. 45 (3): 1–16. Archived from the original on 2016-11-12. Retrieved 2013-10-12.
- ^ Barnes, Robert D. (1987). "15. The myriapods". Invertebrate zoology (5th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders College Pub. pp. 674–683.
- ^ PMID 22303097.
- PMID 17163800.
- .
- ^ Nguyen Duy-Jacquemin, M.; J.-J. Geoffroy (2003). "A revised comprehensive checklist, relational database, and taxonomic system of reference for the bristly millipedes of the world (Diplopoda, Polyxenida)". African Invertebrates. 44 (1): 89–101.
- PMID 22303098.
- PMID 23794829.
- ^ Duy-Jacquemin, MN; Azar, D (2004). "The oldest records of Polyxenida (Myriapoda, Diplopoda): New discoveries from the Cretaceous ambers of Lebanon and France". Geodiversitas. 26 (4): 631–641.
- PMID 19944188.
- ^ Kraus, O; C. Brauckman (2003). "Fossil giants and surviving dwarfs. Arthropleurida and Pselaphognatha (Ateolocerata, Diplopoda): characters, phylogenetic relationships and construction". Verh. Naturwiss. Ver. Hamburg. 40 (5): 5–50.
External links
- Media related to Polyxenida at Wikimedia Commons
- Data related to Polyxenida at Wikispecies
- "Polyxenida" at the Encyclopedia of Life
- Photos of Polyxenida