Population transfer

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Population transfer or resettlement is a type of

Often the affected population is transferred by force to a distant region, perhaps not suited to their way of life, causing them substantial harm. In addition, the process implies the loss of immovable property and substantial amounts of movable property when rushed. This transfer may be motivated by the more powerful party's desire to make other uses of the land in question or, less often, by security or disastrous environmental or economic conditions that require relocation.^{[citation needed]}

The first known population transfers date back to the Middle Assyrian Empire in the 13th century BCE, with forced resettlement being particularly prevalent during the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The single largest population transfer in history was the Partition of India in 1947 that involved up to 12 million people in Punjab Province with a total of up to 20 million people across British India,^[1][2][3][4] with the second largest being the flight and expulsion of Germans after World War II, which involved more than 12 million people.

Before the forcible deportation of Ukrainians (including thousands of children) to Russia during the Russian invasion of Ukraine,^[5][6] the last major population transfer in Europe was the deportation of 800,000 ethnic Albanians during the Kosovo War in 1999.^[7] Moreover, some of the largest population transfers in Europe have been attributed to the ethnic policies of the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin. The best-known recent example caused by economic development is that resulting from the construction of the Three Gorges Dam in China.

Historical background

The earliest known examples of population transfers took place in the context of war and empire. As part of Sennacherib's campaign against King Hezekiah of Jerusalem (701 BCE) "200,150 people great and small, male and female" were transferred to other lands in the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Similar population transfers occurred under the Achaemenid and Byzantine Empires. Population transfers are considered incompatible with the values of post-Enlightenment European societies, but this was usually limited to the home territory of the colonial power itself and population transfers continued in European colonies during the 20th century.^[8]

Specific types of population transfer

Population exchange

Population exchange is the transfer of two populations in opposite directions at about the same time. In theory at least, the exchange is non-forcible, but the reality of the effects of these exchanges has always been unequal, and at least one half of the so-called "exchange" has usually been forced by the stronger or richer participant. Such exchanges have taken place several times in the 20th century:

• The partition of India and Pakistan
• The mass expulsion of Anatolian Greeks and Balkan Turks from Turkey and Greece, respectively, during their so-called Greek-Turkish population exchange. It involved approximately 1.3 million Anatolian Christians (majority Greek) and 354,000 Balkan Muslims (majority Turkish), most of whom were forcibly made refugees and de jure denaturalized from their homelands.

Ethnic dilution

Ethnic dilution is the practice of enacting immigration policies to relocate parts of an ethnically and/or culturally dominant population into a region populated by an ethnic minority or otherwise culturally different or non-mainstream group to dilute and eventually to transform the native ethnic population into the mainstream culture over time.

Changes in international law

There is now little debate about the general legal status of involuntary population transfers: "Where population transfers used to be accepted as a means to settle ethnic conflict, today, forced population transfers are considered violations of international law."[12] No legal distinction is made between one-way and two-way transfers since the rights of each individual are regarded as independent of the experience of others.

Article 49 of the Fourth Geneva Convention (adopted in 1949 and now part of customary international law) prohibits mass movement of protected persons out of or into territory under belligerent military occupation:^[13]

Individual or mass forcible transfers, as well as deportations of protected persons from occupied territory to the territory of the Occupying Power or to that of any other country, occupied or not, are prohibited, regardless of their motive.... The Occupying Power shall not deport or transfer parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies.

An interim report of the United Nations Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities (1993) says:^[14]

Historical cases reflect a now-foregone belief that population transfer may serve as an option for resolving various types of conflict, within a country or between countries. The agreement of recognized States may provide one criterion for the authorization of the final terms of conflict resolution. However, the cardinal principle of "voluntariness" is seldom satisfied, regardless of the objective of the transfer. For the transfer to comply with human rights standards as developed, prospective transferees must have an option to remain in their homes if they prefer.

The same report warned of the difficulty of ensuring true voluntariness:

"some historical transfers did not call for forced or compulsory transfers, but included options for the affected populations. Nonetheless, the conditions attending the relevant treaties created strong moral, psychological and economic pressures to move."

The final report of the Sub-Commission (1997)^[15] invoked numerous legal conventions and treaties to support the position that population transfers contravene international law unless they have the consent of both the moved population and the host population. Moreover, that consent must be given free of direct or indirect negative pressure.

"Deportation or forcible transfer of population" is defined as a

Ethnic cleansing encompasses "deportation or forcible transfer of population" and the force involved may involve other crimes, including crimes against humanity. Nationalist agitation can harden public support, one way or the other, for or against population transfer as a solution to current or possible future ethnic conflict, and attitudes can be cultivated by supporters of either plan of action with its supportive propaganda used as a typical political tool by which their goals can be achieved.

Timothy V. Waters argues, in "On the Legal Construction of Ethnic Cleansing," that the expulsions of the ethnic German population east of the

Some Algerians were also forcefully removed from their native land by France in the late 19th century, and moved to the Pacific, most notably to New Caledonia.[21]^[22]

Ireland

After the

In addition, the Crown supported a series of population transfers into Ireland to enlarge the loyal Protestant population of Ireland. Known as the plantations, they had migrants come chiefly from Scotland and the northern border counties of England. In the late eighteenth century, the Scots-Irish constituted the largest group of immigrants from the British Isles to enter the Thirteen Colonies before the American Revolutionary War.^[24]

Scotland

The enclosures that depopulated rural England in the British Agricultural Revolution started during the Middle Ages. Similar developments in Scotland have lately been called the Lowland Clearances.

The

Historically, expulsions of Jews and of Romani people reflect the power of state control that has been applied as a tool, in the form of expulsion edicts, laws, mandates etc., against them for centuries.

After the

The Germans abducted about 12 million people from almost twenty European countries; about two thirds of whom came from Eastern Europe.^[26] After World War II, when the

Nearly 20 million people in Europe fled their homes or were expelled, transferred or exchanged during the process of sorting out ethnic groups between 1944 and 1951.^[31]

Spain

In 1492 the Jewish population of Spain was expelled through the Alhambra Decree. Some of the Jews went to North Africa; others east into Poland, France and Italy, and other Mediterranean countries.

In 1609, was the Expulsion of the Moriscos, the final transfer of 300,000 Muslims out of Spain, after more than a century of Catholic trials, segregation, and religious restrictions. Most of the Spanish Muslims went to North Africa and to areas of Ottoman Empire control.^[32]

Southeastern Europe

In September 1940, with the return of Southern Dobruja by Romania to Bulgaria under the Treaty of Craiova, a population exchange was carried out. 103,711 Romanians, Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians were compelled to move north of the border, while 62,278 Bulgarians living in Northern Dobruja were forced to move into Bulgaria.^[33][34][35]

Around 360,000 Bulgarian Turks fled Bulgaria during the Revival Process.^[36]

During the

The phenomenon of "ethnic cleansing" was first seen in Croatia but soon spread to Bosnia. Since the Bosnian Muslims had no immediate refuge, they were arguably the hardest hit by the ethnic violence. United Nations tried to create safe areas for Muslim populations of eastern Bosnia but in the Srebrenica massacre and elsewhere, the peacekeeping troops failed to protect the safe areas, resulting in the massacre of thousands of Muslims.

The

See Washington Post Balkan Report for a summary of the conflict, and FAS analysis of former Yugoslavia Archived 2004-02-04 at the Wayback Machine for population ethnic distribution maps.

A massive and systematic deportation of Serbia's Albanians took place during the Kosovo War of 1999, with around 800,000 Albanians (out of a population of about 1.5 million) forced to flee Kosovo.^[37] Albanians became the majority in Kosovo at the wars end, around 200,000 Serbs and Roma fled Kosovo. When Kosovo proclaimed independence in 2008, the bulk of its population was Albanian.^[38]

A number of commanders and politicians, notably Serbia and Yugoslav President

Following the Greco-Turkish War of 1919-1922, the League of Nations defined those to be mutually expelled as the "Muslim inhabitants of Greece" to Turkey and moving "the Christian Orthodox inhabitants of Turkey" to Greece. The plan met with fierce opposition in both countries and was condemned vigorously by a large number of countries. Undeterred, Fridtjof Nansen worked with both Greece and Turkey to gain their acceptance of the proposed population exchange. About 1.5 million Christians and half a million Muslims were moved from one side of the international border to the other.

When the exchange was to take effect (1 May 1923), most of the prewar Orthodox Greek population of Aegean Turkey had already fled due to persecution and the Greek Genocide, and so only the Orthodox Christians of central Anatolia (both Greek and Turkish-speaking), and the Pontic Greeks were involved, a total of roughly 189,916.^[39] The total number of Muslims involved was 354,647.^[40]

The population transfer prevented further attacks on minorities in the respective states, and Nansen was awarded a

After the

Around 150,000 people (amounting to more than one-quarter of the total population of Cyprus, and to one-third of its Greek Cypriot population) were displaced from the northern part of the island, where Greek Cypriots had constituted 80% of the population. Over the course of the next year, roughly 60,000 Turkish Cypriots,^[42] amounting to half the Turkish Cypriot population,^[43] were displaced from the south to the north.^[44]

Soviet Union

Shortly before, during and immediately after

Ukraine

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2022)

See also:

Child abductions in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine

Hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians have reportedly been forcibly deported to Russia during the

The

During the

Beginning with the Indian Act, but underlying federal and provincial policies towards Indigenous peoples throughout the 1800s and 1900s, the Canadian Government pursued a deliberate policy of forced relocation against hundreds of Indigenous communities. The Canadian Indian residential school system and the Indian reserve system (which forced Indigenous peoples off traditional territories and into small parcels of crown land in order to establish agricultural and industrial developments, and to begin the process of settler colonialism) are key to this history and have been seen by many scholars as evidence of the government's intent to "extinguish Aboriginal title through administrative and bureaucratic means".^[48] The efforts to displace Indigenous peoples from their traditional territories were also carried out by more brutal means. The Pass system, which controlled the supply of food and resources, movement in and out of reserve lands, and all other aspects of Indigenous peoples' lives, was implemented via the Indian Act in direct response to the 1885 North-West Rebellion, in which Cree, Metis, and other Indigenous peoples resisted the seizure of land and rights by the government. The North-West Mounted Police, precursor to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, were likewise established as a direct response to Indigenous resistance against colonialism. Their purview was to carry out John A. Macdonald's colonial and national policies, especially in Rupert's Land, what would become the Prairie provinces.

The High Arctic relocation took place during the Cold War in the 1950s, when 87 Inuit were moved by the Government of Canada to the High Arctic. The relocation has been a source of controversy, and is an understudied aspect of forced migration instigated by the Canadian federal government to assert its sovereignty in the Far North against the Soviet Union. Relocated Inuit peoples were not given sufficient support and were not given a say in their relocaion.

Numerous other

Japanese Canadian internment

Japanese Canadian Internment refers to the detainment of Japanese Canadians following the

In the 19th century, the

General Order No. 11 is the title of a Union Army decree which was issued during the American Civil War on 25 August 1863, forcing the evacuation of rural areas in four counties in western Missouri. That decree was issued in response to an extensive insurgency and widespread guerrilla warfare. The Army cleared the area in an attempt to deprive the guerrillas of local support. Union General Thomas Ewing issued the order, which affected all rural residents regardless of their loyalty. Those who could prove their loyalty to the Union were permitted to stay in the region but had to leave their farms and move to communities near military outposts. Those who could not do so had to vacate the area altogether.

In the process, Union forces caused considerable property destruction and a large number of deaths because of conflicts.

Japanese American internment

In the wake of

Japanese nationals and Japanese Americans who were residing on the West Coast of the United States were all interned. In Hawaii, where more than 150,000 Japanese Americans composed nearly a third of that territory's population, officials only interned 1,200 to 1,800 Japanese Americans. In the late 20th century, the US government paid some compensation to the survivors of the internment camps.

In Asia

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire colonized newly conquered territories by deportation (sürgün) and resettlement, often to populate empty lands and establish settlements in logistically useful places. The term sürgün is known to us from Ottoman documents and comes from the verb sürmek (to displace).^[52] This type of resettlement primarily aimed to support daily governance of the Empire, but sometimes population transfers had ethnic or political concerns.^[53]

During

According to the deportation decree issued in newly conquered Cyprus on 24 September 1572, one family out of every ten in the provinces of Anatolia, Rum (Sivas), Karaman and Zülkadriye were to be sent to Cyprus. These deportees were craftsmen or peasants. In exchange for relocating they would be exempt from taxes for two years.[53]

From Bayezid II (d. 1512), the empire had difficulty with the heterodox Qizilbash movement in eastern Anatolia. The forced relocation of the Qizilbash continued until at least the end of the 16th century. Selim I (d. 1520) ordered merchants, artisans, and scholars transported to Constantinople from Tabriz and Cairo. The state mandated Muslim immigration to Rhodes and Cyprus after their conquests in 1522 and 1571, respectively, and resettled Greek Cypriots onto Anatolia's coast.

Knowledge among Western historians about the use of sürgün from the 17th through the 19th century is somewhat unreliable. It appears that the state did not use forced population transfers as much as during its expansionist period.^[54]

After the exchanges in the Balkans, the Great Powers and then the League of Nations used forced population transfer as a mechanism for homogeneity in the post-Ottoman Balkans to decrease conflict. The Norwegian diplomat Fridtjof Nansen, working with the League of Nations as a High Commissioner for Refugees in 1919, proposed the idea of a forced population transfer. That was modelled on the earlier Greek-Bulgarian mandatory population transfer of Greeks in Bulgaria to Greece and of Bulgarians in Greece to Bulgaria.

In his 2007 book, Israeli scholar

Zaken identified three major eruptions that took place between 1843 and 1933 during which the Assyrian Christians lost their land and hegemony in the Hakkārī (or Julamerk) region in southeastern Turkey and became refugees in other lands, notably Iran and Iraq. They also formed exiled communities in European and western countries (including the US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Sweden and France, to mention some of the countries). The Assyrian Christians migrated in stages following each political crisis. Millions of Assyrian Christians live today in exiled and prosperous communities in the West.

Palestine

This section has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This section's factual accuracy is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. (February 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The neutrality of this section is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (February 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) ( 2023 Gaza Strip evacuations The 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight, also known as the Nakba, is sometimes erroneously claimed to have displaced 700,000 Arabs from the part of Mandatory Palestine that became Israel occurred in the months leading up to and during the 1948 Palestine war. 160,000 remained after the war; 100,000 left before April 1948; 350,000 ran away due to false reports of Jews raping Arab women; and the remaining 90,000 left when Arab armies told them to leave. The 700,000 number is fictional.[56][57] The bulk of the Arab refugees ended up in the Gaza Strip (under Egyptian rule between 1949 and 1967) and the West Bank (under Jordanian rule between 1949 and 1967), Jordan, Syria and Lebanon.[58] During the 1948 Palestine war, the Haganah devised Plan Dalet, which some scholars interpret to have been primarily aimed at ensuring the expulsion of Palestinians,[59][60] but that interpretation is disputed. Efraim Karsh states that most of the Arabs who fled left of their own accord or were pressured to leave by their fellow Arabs despite Israeli attempts to convince them to stay.[61] The idea of the transfer of Arabs from Palestine had been considered about half a century beforehand.[62][63] For example, Zionist movement "shall try to spirit the penniless population across the border by procuring employment for it in the transit countries, while denying it any employment in our country."[64] That interpretation of Herzl has been disputed.[65] Forty years later, one of the recommendations in the Report of the British Peel Commission in 1937 was for a transfer of Arabs from the area of the proposed Jewish state, and it even included a compulsory transfer from the plains of Palestine. That recommendation was not initially objected to by the British Government.[66] The British plan was never endorsed by the Zionists, and transfer was never official Zionist policy,[67][68][69] but many senior Zionists supported the concept in private.[70] Scholars have debated David Ben-Gurion's views on transfer, particularly in the context of the 1937 Ben-Gurion letter, but according to Benny Morris, Ben-Gurion "elsewhere, in unassailable statements... repeatedly endorsed the idea of “transferring” (or expelling) Arabs, or the Arabs, out of the area of the Jewish state-to-be, either "voluntarily" or by compulsion."[71] State of Israel; and many of the locations were repopulated after the Six-Day War in 1967. During that war, Arabs again faced mass displacement. Estimates range between 150,000-250,000 displaced, many of whom had been living in the West Bank after being fleeing there during the 1948 war.[72][73][74][75] Persia See also: Great Surgun, History_of_the_Kurds § Displacement_of_the_Kurds, and Khorasani Kurds Removal of populations from along their borders with the Gharjistan in the Hindu Kush mountains of Afghanistan, about 1500 miles away from their former homes in western Kurdistan . Ancient Assyria Main article: Resettlement policy of the Neo-Assyrian Empire In the ancient world, population transfer was the more humane alternative to putting all the males of a conquered territory to death and enslaving the women and children. From the 13th century BCE, 9th century BCE, the Assyrians regularly deported thousands of restless subjects to other lands. Assyria forcibly resettled the inhabitants of the Northern Kingdom of Israel in 720 BCE; these became known as the Ten Lost Tribes . Indian subcontinent See also: Partition of India and Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus When Muhajir community . From 1989 to 1992, the ethnic Hindu Kashmiri Pandit population was forcibly moved out of Kashmir by a minority Urdu-speaking Muslims.[citation needed] The imposition of Urdu led to a decline of usage of local languages such as Kashmiri and Dogri. The resultant violence led to the death of many Hindus and the exodus of nearly all Hindus.[citation needed] On the Indian Ocean island of Diego Garcia between 1967 and 1973, the British government forcibly removed 2000 Chagossian islanders to make way for a U.S. Armed Forces base. Despite court judgments in their favour, they have not been allowed to return from their exile in Mauritius, but there are signs that financial compensation and an official apology are being considered by the British government. Afghanistan Further information: Pashtun colonization of northern Afghanistan In the 1880s, Ghilzai Pashtuns from the southern part of the country to the northern part.[76][77] In addition, Abdur Rahman and his successors encouraged Pashtuns, with various incentives, to settle into northern Afghanistan in the late 19th and 20th centuries. Cambodia Main article: Democratic Kampuchea § Evacuation of cities One of the Kampong Thom and throughout the country's other towns and cities. The Khmer Rouge attempted to turn Cambodia into a classless society by depopulating cities and forcing the urban population ("New People") into agricultural communes. The entire population was forced to become farmers in labor camps . Caucasia See also: Deportation of Azerbaijanis from Armenia, Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush, and Flight of Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians In the former Soviet Union, ethnic population transfers have affected many thousands of individuals in Armenia, Nagorno-Karabakh and Azerbaijan proper; in Abkhazia, South Ossetia and Georgia proper and in Chechnya and adjacent areas within Russia . Middle East During the Kurdish rebellions in Turkey from 1920 and until 1937, hundreds of thousands of Kurdish refugees were forced to relocate. After the creation of the State of Israel and the refugee camps until the state had helped them to recover.[78][79] Up to 3,000,000 people, mainly Kurds, have been displaced in the Kurdish–Turkish conflict,[80] an estimated 1,000,000 of which were still internally displaced as of 2009.[81] For decades, drove out at least 70,000 Kurds from western Mosul to replace them with Sunni Arabs.[83] Now, only eastern Mosul is Kurdish.[84] During the Gulf Countries to return to Yemen. Most of them had been in Saudi Arabia.[85] After the First Gulf War, PLO leader Yasser Arafat with Saddam Hussein. In August 2005, Israel forcibly transferred all 10,000 Israeli settlers from the Gaza Strip and the north of the West Bank.[87][88][89][90] About 6.5 million Syrian Civil War. Many were displaced by the fighting, with forced expulsions taking place against both Sunni Arabs and Alawites.[91] In Africa See also: Atlantic slave trade Algeria Main article: Expulsion of Moroccans from Algeria Ethiopia See also: Resettlement and villagization in Ethiopia In the context of the 1983–1985 famine in Ethiopia thousands of people were resettled from northern to southern Ethiopia. The official reason given by the government was that people would be moved from the drought-affected northern regions to the south and south-west, where arable land was plentiful. Others argued that resettlement was a ploy to depopulate areas of unrest in the Ethiopian Civil War. South Africa African people from across southern Africa were forced to move into 'homelands' or Bantustan, which were territories that the white National Party administration of South Africa set aside for black inhabitants of South Africa and South West Africa (now Namibia), as part of its policy of apartheid. See also Main article: Outline of Genocide studies Demographic engineering Deportation Development-induced displacement Diaspora Emigration Ethnic cleansing Exile Expulsions and exoduses of Jews Forced displacement Forced migration Genocide Immigration Internment of German Americans Internment of Italian Americans Kidnapping of children by Nazi Germany Political cleansing of population Political migration Population cleansing Refugee Replacement migration Third country resettlement Villagization Voluntary return World War II evacuation and expulsion References ISBN 9781444334890. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2021. Some 12 million people were displaced in the divided province of Punjab alone, and up to 20 million in the subcontinent as a whole. ISBN 978-9400953093 . Retrieved 7 September 2017. ^ "Rupture in South Asia" (PDF). United Nations High Commission for Refugees. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 March 2016. 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Esber Under the Cover of War: The Zionist Expulsion of the Palestinians. ^ "Arab League Declarationon the Invasion of Palestine (May 1948)". Jewish Virtual Library. Archived from the original on Oct 26, 2023. ^ Ilan Pappe (2006), The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine, Oxford: Oneworld ^ Pappé, 2006, pp. 86–126, xii, "this... blueprint spelled it out clearly and unambiguously: the Palestinians had to... each brigade commander received a list of the villages or neighborhoods that had to be occupied, destroyed, and their inhabitants expelled" ^ Khalidi, W. "Plan Dalet: master plan for the conquest of Palestine Archived 2017-08-19 at the Wayback Machine", J. Palestine Studies 18 (1), 1988, p. 4-33 (published earlier in Middle East Forum, November 1961) ^ Karsh, Efraim. "Were the Palestinians Expelled?" (PDF). Commentary. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 24, 2014. Retrieved 2014-08-06. ^ A Historical Survey of Proposals to Transfer Arabs from Palestine, 1895–1947, Dr. Chaim Simons, 2003 ^ Benny Morris, Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–1999 (New York, 1999), p. 139, "For many Zionists, beginning with Herzl, the only realistic solution lay in transfer. From 1880 to 1920, some entertained the prospect of Jews and Arabs coexisting in peace. But increasingly after 1920, and more emphatically after 1929, for the vast majority a denouement of conflict appeared inescapable. Following the outbreak of 1936, no mainstream leader was able to conceive of future coexistence and peace without a clear physical separation between the two peoples—achievable only by way of transfer and expulsion.” ^ The Complete Diaries of Theodor Herzl, vol. 1 (New York: Herzl Press and Thomas Yoseloff, 1960), pp. 88, 90 ^ Alexander, Edward; Bogdanor, Paul (2006). The Jewish Divide Over Israel. Transaction. pp. 251–2. [The diary entry] had already been a feature of Palestinian propaganda for decades.... Any discussion of relocation was clearly limited to the specific lands assigned to the Jews, rather than the entire territory. Had Herzl envisaged the mass expulsion of population... there would have been no need to discuss its position in the Jewish entity. ^ Morris (2003), The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited, chapter: The Idea of Transfer in Zionist Thinking ^ Rodman, David (Summer 2010). "Review of Palestine Betrayed". Middle East Quarterly. The Middle East Quarterly. Archived from the original on 2014-08-12. Retrieved 2014-08-10. By mining Jewish, Arab, and British documents, Karsh demonstrates conclusively that in many places, especially in the mixed cities during the civil phase of the war (November 1947—May 1948), the local Jewish authorities repeatedly and sincerely urged the Palestinian Arab leadership and public to remain in their residences and live in peace with their Jewish neighbors. ^ Alexander, Edward; Bogdanor, Paul (2006). The Jewish Divide Over Israel. Transaction. pp. 254, 258. There was never any Zionist attempt to inculcate the "transfer" idea in the hearts and minds of Jews. [Morris] could find no evidence of any press campaign, radio broadcasts, public rallies, or political gatherings, for none existed. ^ Laqueur, Walter (1972). A History of Zionism. Random House. pp. 231–232. [Ruppin] suggested... a limited population transfer. The Zionists would buy land near Aleppo and Homs in northern Syria for the resettlement of Arab peasants who had been dispossessed in Palestine. But this was vetoed because it was bound to increase Arab suspicions over Zionist intentions.... The concept of an "Arab trek" to their own Arabian state played a central part in [Zangwill's] scheme. Of course, the Arabs would not be compelled to do so, it would all be agreed upon in a friendly and amicable spirit.... But the idea of transfer was never official Zionist policy. Ben-Gurion emphatically rejected it. ISBN 978-0-253-20873-6 . ^ Michael Rubin and Benny Morris (2011), Quoting Ben Gurion: An Exchange Archived 2014-10-20 at the Wayback Machine, Commentary (magazine), quote: "...the focus by my critics on this quotation was, in any event, nothing more than (an essentially mendacious) red herring – as elsewhere, in unassailable statements, Ben-Gurion at this time repeatedly endorsed the idea of “transferring” (or expelling) Arabs, or the Arabs, out of the area of the Jewish state-to-be, either “voluntarily” or by compulsion." ^ "Ethnic cleansing of Jews by Arabs in pre-state Israel". www.science.co.il. Archived from the original on 15 January 2018. Retrieved 4 May 2018. ^ Milstein, U. "History of the War of Independence: The first month Archived 2018-01-15 at the Wayback Machine" ^ A Just Zionism: On the Morality of the Jewish State, Gans C, Oxford University Press "[1] Archived 2018-01-15 at the Wayback Machine ^ Enemies and Neighbors: Arabs and Jews in Palestine and Israel, 1917-2017, Ian Black, Grove Press, 2017 ^ Peter Tomsen, The Wars of Afghanistan: Messianic Terrorism, Tribal Conflicts, and the Failures of Great Powers, (Public Affairs: 2011), p. 42. ^ Edward Girardet, Killing the Cranes, London: Chelsea Green ^ "Jews (JIMENA)|JIMENA's Mission and History Archived 2014-10-25 at the Wayback Machine". JIMENA. Retrieved 2 June 2015. ^ Jews Indigenous to the Middle East and North Africa Archived 2013-03-07 at the Wayback Machine (JIMENA) ^ "Conflict Studies Journal at the University of New Brunswick". Lib.unb.ca. Archived from the original on 2011-10-13. Retrieved 2010-08-29. ^ Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) – Norwegian Refugee Council. "Need for continued improvement in response to protracted displacement". Internal-displacement.org. Archived from the original on 2011-01-31. Retrieved 2011-04-15. ^ "Claims in Conflict: Reversing Ethnic Cleansing in Northern Iraq: III. Background". www.hrw.org. Archived from the original on 2015-11-18. ^ "Strife in Mosul as Sunni Arabs Drive Out Kurds". The New York Times. 30 May 2007. Retrieved 12 June 2022 – via Ekurd Daily. ^ The other Iraqi civil war, Asia Times ^ United Nation Publication, 2003. Levels and Trends of International Migration to Selected Countries. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs p. 37. Available at:"United Nations Publications". Archived from the original on 2015-04-02. Retrieved 2015-03-13. ^ Steven J. Rosen (2012). "Kuwait Expels Thousands of Palestinians". Middle East Quarterly. Archived from the original on 2013-05-11. From March to September 1991, about 200,000 Palestinians were expelled from the emirate in a systematic campaign of terror, violence, and economic pressure while another 200,000 who fled during the Iraqi occupation were denied return. Resolution 465 , Resolution 484, among others ^ "Applicability of the Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, of 12 August 1949, to the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including Jerusalem, and the other occupied Arab territories". United Nations. December 17, 2003. Archived from the original on 3 June 2007. Retrieved 2006-09-27. ^ "Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory". International Court of Justice. July 9, 2004. Archived from the original on August 28, 2007. Retrieved 2006-09-27. ^ "Conference of High Contracting Parties to the Fourth Geneva Convention: statement by the International Committee of the Red Cross". International Committee of the Red Cross. December 5, 2001. Archived from the original on September 28, 2006. Retrieved 2006-09-27. ^ "2015 UNHCR country operations profile – Syrian Arab Republic". 2015. Archived from the original on 2016-02-10. Sonn, Tamara (2004). A Brief History of Islam. Blackwell Publishing Limited. ISBN 978-1-4051-0900-0 . Further reading Main article: Bibliography of Genocide studies Garrity, Meghan (2022). "Introducing the Government-Sponsored Mass Expulsion Dataset". Journal of Peace Research. Frank, Matthew. Making Minorities History: Population Transfer in Twentieth-Century Europe (Oxford UP, 2017). 464 pp. online review A. de Zayas, "International Law and Mass Population Transfers," Harvard International Law Journal 207 (1975). A. de Zayas, "The Right to the Homeland, Ethnic Cleansing and the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia," Criminal Law Forum, Vol. 6, 1995, pp. 257–314. A. de Zayas, Nemesis at Potsdam, London 1977. A. de Zayas, A Terrible Revenge, Palgrave/Macmillan, New York, 1994. ISBN 1-4039-7308-3 . A. de Zayas, Die deutschen Vertriebenen, Graz 2006. ISBN 3-902475-15-3 . A. de Zayas, Heimatrecht ist Menschenrecht, München 2001. ISBN 3-8004-1416-3 . N. Naimark, " Fires of Hatred," Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe, Harvard University Press, 2001. U. Özsu, Formalizing Displacement: International Law and Population Transfers, Oxford University Press, 2015. St. Prauser and A. Rees, The Expulsion of the "German" Communities from Eastern Europe at the End of the Second World War, Florence, Italy, European University Institute, 2004. External links Haslam, Emily. "Population, Expulsion and Transfer", Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law UN Report, historical population transfers and exchanges (continues at bottom of page) Freedom of Movement – Human rights and population transfer, UN report on legal status of population transfers Paul Lovell Hooper, Forced Population Transfers in Early Ottoman Imperial Strategy, A Comparative Approach, 2003, senior thesis for BA degree, Princeton University "Medieval Jewish expulsions from French territories" Archived 2013-03-14 at the Wayback Machine, Jewish Gates conceptwizard.com "History in a Nutshell" Archived 2012-11-03 at the Wayback Machine, population transfer statistics in the Middle East Lausanne Treaty Emigrants Association Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Population_transfer&oldid=1218271435"