Pornography
Pornography (colloquially known as porn or porno) has been defined as sexual subject material "such as a picture, video, or text" that is intended for sexual arousal.[a] Intended for consumption by adults, pornography depictions have evolved from cave paintings, some forty millennia ago, to virtual reality presentations. A general distinction of adult content is made classifying it as pornography or erotica.
The oldest
Pornography has been vouched to provision a safe outlet for sexual desires that may not be satisfied within relationships and be a facilitator of sexual release in people who do not have a partner. It has been equated with journalism, as both offer a view into the unknown or the hidden aspects. Pornography use is considered a widespread recreational activity in-line with other digitally mediated activities such as use of social media or video games.
Pornographic websites rank among the
Etymology and definition
The word pornography is a conglomerate of two ancient Greek words: πόρνος (pórnos) "fornicators", and
The oldest published reference to the word pornography as in 'new pornographie,' is dated back to 1638 and is credited to Nathaniel Butter in a history of the Fleet newspaper industry.[5] The modern word pornography entered the English language as the more familiar word in 1842 via French "pornographie," from Greek "pornographos".[6]
The term porn is an abbreviation of pornography.[2] The related term πόρνη (pórnē) "prostitute" in Greek, originally meant "bought, purchased" similar to pernanai "to sell", from the proto-Indo-European root per-, "to hand over" — alluding to act of selling.[2]
The word pornography was originally used by classical scholars as "a bookish, and therefore inoffensive term for writing about prostitutes",[7] but its meaning was quickly expanded to include all forms of "objectionable or obscene material in art and literature".[7] In 1864, Webster's Dictionary published "a licentious painting" as the meaning for pornography,[7] and the Oxford English Dictionary: "obscene painting" (1842), "description of obscene matters, obscene publication" (1977 or earlier).[8]
Definitions for the term "pornography" are varied, with people from both pro- and anti-pornography groups defining it either favorably or unfavourably, thus making any definition very stipulative.[9][10][11] Nevertheless, academic researchers have defined pornography as sexual subject material "such as a picture, video, or text" that is primarily intended to assist sexual arousal in the consumer, and is created and commercialized with "the consent of all persons involved".[a] Arousal is considered the primary objective, the raison d'etre a material must fulfill for it to be treated as pornographic.[14] As some people can feel aroused by an image that is not meant for sexual arousal and conversely cannot feel aroused by material that is clearly intended for arousal, the material that can be considered as pornography becomes subjective.[14]
Pornography throughout history
Pornography from ancient times
As the very definition of pornography is subjective, a specified history of pornography is inconceivable.[15] Pornography is viewed by historians as a complex cultural formation.[16] Depictions of a sexual nature existed since
Vast number of artifacts that have been discovered in ancient Mesopotamia had explicit depictions of heterosexual sex.[20][21] Glyptic art from the Sumerian Early Dynastic Period frequently shows scenes of frontal sex in the missionary position.[20] In Mesopotamian votive plaques, from the early second millennium BCE, a man is usually shown penetrating a woman from behind while she bends over drinking beer through a straw.[20] Middle Assyrian lead votive figurines often represented a man standing and penetrating a woman as she rests on an altar.[20]
Scholars have traditionally interpreted all these depictions as scenes of hieros gamos (an ancient sacred marriage between a god and a goddess), but they are more likely to be associated with the cult of Inanna, the Mesopotamian goddess of sex and sacred prostitution.[20] Many sexually explicit images, including models of male and female sexual organs, were found in the temple of Inanna at Assur.[20]
Depictions of sexual intercourse were not part of the general repertory of ancient Egyptian formal art, but rudimentary sketches of heterosexual intercourse have been found on pottery fragments and in graffiti.
Archaeologist Nikolaos Stampolidis had noted that the society of ancient Greece held lenient attitudes towards sexual representation in the fields of art and literature.[23] The Greek poet Sappho's Ode to Aphrodite (600 BCE) is considered an earliest example of lesbian poetry.[18] Red-figure pottery invented in Greece (530 BCE) often portrayed images that displayed eroticism.[24] The fifth-century BC comic Aristophanes elaborated 106 ways of describing the male genitalia and in 91 ways the female genitalia.[23] Lysistrata (411 BCE) is a sex-war comedy play performed in ancient Greece.[25]
In India, Hinduism embraced an inquisitive attitude towards sex as an art and a spiritual ideal.[26] Some ancient Hindu temples incorporated various aspects of sexuality into their art work. The temples at Khajuraho and Konark are particularly renowned for their sculptures, which had detailed representations of human sexual activity.[27] These depictions were viewed with a spiritual outlook as sexual arousal is believed to denote the embodying of the divine.[e]
"pornography is sometimes characterised as the symptom of a degenerate society, but anyone even noddingly familiar with Greek vases or statues on ancient Hindu temples will know that so-called unnatural sex acts, orgies and all manner of complex liaisons have for millennia past been represented in art for the pleasure and inspiration of the viewer everywhere. The desire to ponder images of love-making is clearly innate in the human – perhaps particularly the male – psyche." — Tom Hodgkinson[32]
Kama, the word used to connote sexual desire, was explored in Indian literary works such as the Kama Sutra, which dealt with the practical as well as the psychological aspects of human courtship and sexual intercourse.[33][34] The
Koka shastra is another medieval Indian work that explored kama.[27] Other examples of early art and literature of sexual nature include: Ars Amatoria (Art of Love), a second-century CE treatise on the art of seduction and sensuality by the Roman poet Ovid;[15] the artifacts of the Moche people in Peru (100 CE to 800 CE);[18] The Decameron, a collection of short stories, some of which are sexual in nature by the 14th-century Italian author Giovanni Boccaccio;[15] and the fifteenth-century Arabic sex manual The Perfumed Garden.[18]
Pornography from early modern era
A highly developed culture of visual erotica flourished in Japan during the early modern era. From at least the 17th century, erotic artworks became part of the mainstream social culture.[15] Depictions of sexual intercourse were often presented on pictures that were meant to provide sex education for medical professionals, courtesans, and married couples. Makura-e (pillow pictures) were made for entertainment as well as for the guidance of married couples.[15] The ninth-century Japanese art form "Shunga" that depicted sexual acts on woodblock prints and paintings became so popular by the 18th century that the Japanese government began to issue official edicts against them. Even so, Japanese erotica flourished with the works of artists such as Suzuki Harunobu achieving worldwide fame.[18][15] Japanese censorship laws enacted in 1870 made the production of erotic works difficult. The laws remained in effect until the end of the Pacific War in 1945; nevertheless, pornography flourished through the sale of "erotic, grotesque, nonsense" (ero-guro-nansensu) periodicals, particularly in the Taishō era (1912-1926).[37] From the 1960s Pink films, which portrayed sexual themes became popular in Japan. In 1981 the first Japanese Adult video (AV) was released.[38] The Japanese pornography industry peaked in the early 2000s when about 30,000 AVs were made a year. From the mid 2010s increased availability of free porn on the Internet led to a decline in the production of AVs.[38] Other forms of adult entertainment such as Hentai, which refers to pornographic manga and anime, and erotic video games have become popular in recent decades.[38]
In Europe, the
At around the same time, erotic graphic art that began to be extensively produced in Paris came to be known in the Anglosphere as "French postcards".[15] Enlightenment-era France had been noted by historians as the centre of origin for modern-era pornography.[49] The works of French pornography, which often concentrated on the education of an ingénue into libertine, dominated the sale of sexually explicit content.[50] The French sought to interlace narratives of sexual pleasure with philosophical and anti-establishment basis.[50] Political pornography began with the French Revolution (1789–99).[51] Apart from the sexual component, pornography became a popular medium for protest against the social and political norms of the time.[15] Pornography during this period was used to explore the ideas of sexual freedom for women and men, the various methods of contraception, and to expose the offences of powerful royals and elites.[15] The working and lower classes in France produced pornographic material en masse with themes of impotency, incest, and orgies that ridiculed the authority of the Church-State, aristocrats, priests, monks, and other royalty.[51] One of the most important authors of socially radical pornography was the French aristocrat Marquis de Sade (1740–1814), whose name helped derive the words "sadism" and "sadist". He advocated libertine sexuality and published writings that were critical of authorities, many of which contained pornographic content.[52] His work Justine (1791) interlaced orgiastic scenes along with extensive debates on the ills of property and traditional hierarchy in society.[15]
When large-scale archaeological excavations were undertaken in the ancient Roman city of
During the
Criminalization
The English act
The world's first law that criminalized pornography was the English Obscene Publications Act 1857, enacted at the urging of the Society for the Suppression of Vice.[59][58] The act passed by the British Parliament in 1857 applied to the United Kingdom and Ireland. The act made the sale of obscene material a statutory offence, and gave the authorities the power to seize and destroy any material which they considered as obscene.[60][61]
For centuries before, sexually explicit material was considered a domain that is exclusive to aristocratic classes.[40] When pornographic material flourished in the Victorian-era England, the affluent classes believed they are sensible enough to deal with it, unlike the lower working classes whom they thought would get distracted by such material and cease to be productive. Beliefs that masturbation would make people ill, insane, or become blind also flourished.[58] The obscenity act gave government officials the power to interfere in the private lives of people unlike any other law before.[60] Some of the people suspected for masturbation were forced to wear chastity devices. "Cures" and "treatment" for masturbation involved such measures like giving electric shock and applying carbolic acid to the clitoris.[58] The law was criticised for being established on still yet unproven claims that sexual material is noxius for people or public health.[60]
The American act
In 1865, the US postal service was seen as a "vehicle" for the transmission of materials that were deemed obscene by the American lawmakers.[62] An act relating to the postal services was passed, which made people pay a fine of $500 for knowingly mailing any "obscene book, pamphlet, picture print, or other publication".[63] From 1865 to up until the first three months of 1872, a total number of nine people were held for various charges of obscenity, with one person sentenced to prison for a year; while in the next ten months fifteen people were arrested under this law. This was partly due to the efforts of Anthony Comstock, who became a major figure in 1872 and held great power to control sexual related activities of people including the choice of abortion.[64] The
Steps towards liberalization
The laws regarding pornography have differed in various historical, cultural, and national contexts.[69] The English Act did not apply to Scotland where the common law continued to apply. Before the English Act, publication of obscene material was treated as a common law misdemeanour,[70] this made effectively prosecuting authors and publishers difficult even in cases where the material was clearly intended as pornography.[71] However, neither the English, nor the United States Act defined what constituted "obscene", leaving this for the courts to determine.[70] For implementing the Comstock act, the US courts used the British Hicklin test to define obscenity, the definition of which was first proposed in 1868, ten years after the passing of the English obscene act.[61] The definition became cemented in 1896 and continued until the mid-twentieth century. Starting from 1957 to 1997, the US Supreme Court made numerous judgements that redefined Obscenity.[67][72]
The nineteenth-century legislation eventually outlawed the publication, retail and trafficking of certain writings and images that were deemed pornographic. Although laws ordered the destruction of shop and warehouse stock meant for sale, the private possession and viewing of (some forms of) pornography was not made an offence until the twentieth century.[71] Historians have explored the role of pornography in determining social norms.[73] The Victorian attitude that pornography was only for a select few is seen in the wording of the Hicklin test, stemming from a court case in 1868, where it asked: "whether the tendency of the matter charged as obscenity is to deprave and corrupt those whose minds are open to such immoral influences".[74]
Although officially prohibited, the sale of sexual material nevertheless continued through "under the counter" means. Magazines specialising in a genre called "saucy and spicy" became popular during this time (1896 to 1955), titles of few popular magazines include; Wink: A Whirl of Girls, Flirt: A FRESH Magazine, and Snappy. Cover stories in these magazines featured segments such as "perky pin-ups" and "high-heel cuties".[75] Some of the popular erotic literary works from the twentieth century include the novels: Story of the Eye (1928), Tropic of Cancer (1934), Tropic of Capricorn (1938), the French Histoire d'O (Story of O) (1954); and the short stories: Delta of Venus (1977), and Little Birds (1979).[76]
After the invention of
Pornographic film production commenced almost immediately after the invention of the motion picture in 1895. A pioneer of the motion picture camera, Thomas Edison, released various films, including The Kiss that were denounced as obscene in late 19th century America.[79][80] Two of the earliest pioneers of pornographic films were Eugène Pirou and Albert Kirchner. Kirchner directed the earliest surviving pornographic film for Pirou under the trade name "Léar". The 1896 film, Le Coucher de la Mariée, showed Louise Willy performing a striptease. Pirou's film inspired a genre of risqué French films that showed women disrobing, and other filmmakers realised profits could be made from such films.[81][82]
Legalization
Sexually explicit films opened producers and distributors to be liable for prosecution. Such films were produced illicitly by amateurs, starting in the 1920s, primarily in France and the United States. Processing the film was risky as was their distribution, which was strictly private.[83] In the western world, during the 1960s, social attitudes towards sex and pornography slowly changed.[84] In 1967 Denmark repealed the obscenity laws on literature, this led to a decline in the sale of pornographic and erotic literature. Hoping for a similar effect, in the summer of 1969, legislators in Denmark abolished censorship on picture pornography,[85] thereby effectively becoming, from July 1, 1969, the first country that legalized pornography,[86][87] including child pornography, which was later prohibited in 1980.[88][89] The 1969 legislation, instead of resulting in a decline in pornography production, led to an explosion of investment in, and commercial production of pornography in Denmark, which made the country's name synonymous with sex and pornography.[85] The total retail turnover of pornography in Denmark for the year 1969 was estimated at $50 million. Much of the pornographic material produced in Denmark was smuggled into other countries around the world.[90]
In the United States, pornography is protected by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution unless it constitutes obscenity or child pornography that is produced with real children. Nevertheless, in Stanley v. Georgia (1969), the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the right of an adult to possess obscene material in private.[91] Subsequently, however, the Supreme Court rejected the claim that under Stanley there is a constitutional right to provide obscene material for private use[92] or to acquire it for private use.[93] The right to possess obscene material does not imply the right to provide or acquire it, because the right to possess it "reflects no more than ... the law's 'solicitude to protect the privacies of the life within [the home]'".[94]
In 1969, Blue Movie by Andy Warhol became the first feature film to depict explicit sexual intercourse that received a wide public theatrical release in the United States.[95][96]
Blue Movie was real. But it wasn't done as pornography—it was done as an exercise, an experiment. But I really do think movies should arouse you, should get you excited about people, should be prurient. Prurience is part of the machine. It keeps you happy. It keeps you running."
Film scholar Linda Williams remarked that prurience "is a key term in any discussion of moving-image sex since the sixties. Often it is the "interest" to which no one wants to own up".[98] In 1968, the Motion Picture Association of America created a new film ratings system in which any film that wasn't approved by the association was released with an "X" rating. When pornographers began to release their productions with the rating X, the association adopted NC-17 rating for adults only films, leaving the X rating to pornography. Later the invented gimmick rating "XXX" became a standard for pornographic material.[99]
Commissions and their findings
In 1970, the United States President's Commission on Obscenity and Pornography, set up to study the effects of pornography, reported that there was "no evidence to date that exposure to explicit sexual materials plays a significant role in the causation of delinquent or criminal behavior among youths or adults".[100] The report further recommended against placing any restriction on the access of pornography by adults and suggested that legislation "should not seek to interfere with the right of adults who wish to do so to read, obtain, or view explicit sexual materials".[101] Regarding the notion that sexually explicit content is improper, the Commission found it "inappropriate to adjust the level of adult communication to that considered suitable for children". The Supreme Court supported this view.[101]
In 1971, Sweden removed its obscenity clause. Further relaxation of legislations during the early 1970s in the US, West Germany and other countries led to rise in pornography production.[90] The 1970s had been described by Linda Williams as 'the "Classical" Era of Theatrically Exhibited Porn', a time period now called the Golden Age of Porn.[90][102]
In 1979, the British Committee on Obscenity and Film Censorship better known as the Williams Committee, formed to review the laws concerning obscenity reported that pornography could not be harmful and to think anything else is to see pornography "out of proportion". The committee declared that existing variety of laws in the field should be scrapped and so long as it is prohibited from children, adults should be free to consume pornography as they see fit.[103][104]
The Meese Report in 1986 argued against loosening restrictions on pornography in the US. The report was criticized as biased, inaccurate, and not credible.[105]
In 1988, the
Role of magazines in legalization
"We were the first to show full frontal nudity. The first to expose the clitoris completely. I think we made a very serious contribution to the liberalization of laws and attitudes. HBO would not have gone as far as it does if it wasn't for us breaking the barriers. Much that has happened now in the Western world with respect to sexual advances is directly due to steps that we took." — Bob Guccione, Penthouse founder in 2004.[110]
The tussle between Playboy and Penthouse paled into obscurity when Larry Flynt started Hustler, which became the first magazine to publish labial "pink shots" in 1974. Hustler projected itself as the magazine for the working classes as opposed to the urban centered Playboy and Penthouse.[111] During the same time in 1972, Helen Gurley Brown, editor of the Cosmopolitan magazine, published a centerfold that featured actor Burt Reynolds in nude. His popular pose has been later emulated by many other famous people. The success of Cosmo led to the launch of Playgirl in 1973.[111] At their peak, Playboy sold close to six million copies a month in the US, while Penthouse nearly five million. In the 2010s, as the market for printed versions of pornographic magazines declined, with Playboy selling about a million and Penthouse about a hundred thousand, many magazines became online publications.[112] The best-selling US adult magazines maintain greater reach compared to most other non-pornographic magazines, and often rank among top-sellers.[113]
Modern-day pornography
Modern-day pornography began to take shape from the mid 1980s when the first desktop computers and public computer networks were released.[114] Since the 1990s, the
With the introduction of
Starting in the 21st century, greater access to the Internet and affordable
Classification and commercialism
Adult content classifications
A distinction is often made regarding adult content classifying it as either pornography or erotica.[139] Considerations of distinctness between erotica and pornography is mostly subjective.[15] Pornographic content is generally classified as either softcore or hardcore.[114] Softcore pornography contains depictions of nudity but without explicit depiction of sexual activity.[114] Hardcore pornography contains explicit depiction of sexual activity.[140] Hardcore porn is more regulated than softcore porn.[140] Softcore porn was popular between the 1970s and 1990s.[141]
Mainstream pornography
Pornography productions cater to consumers of various
Mainstream pornography involves professional performers who work for various corporate film studios in their respective productions.[144]
Mainstream pornography productions are usually classified as feature or gonzo.
Indie pornography
Pornography productions that are independent of mainstream pornographic studios are classified as indie (or) independent pornography.[150] These productions cater to more specific audience, and often feature different scenarios and sexual activity compared to the mainstream porn.[150][143] The performers in indie porn include real-life couples and regular people, who sometimes work in partnership with other performers. Apart from content creation the performers do the background work such as videography, editing, web development themselves, and distribute under their own brand.[150] Paysites like Clips4Sale.com, MakeLoveNotPorn.tv, and PinkLabel.tv provide a platform to the web-based content of independent pornographers.[147][151][152]
Genres
Pornography encompasses a wide variety of genres providing for an enormous range of consumer tastes.[143][153] Most of the genres or types are named according to the depiction of sexual activity, these include: anal, creampie, cum shot, double penetration, fisting, threesome.[153] Categorizations based on the age of the performers include: teens, milf, mature.[153] Other categorizations based on the gender and sexual identity include: lesbian, transsexual, queer, shemale; while those based on race include: ethnic, interracial.[153] Others include: mormon,[154] zombie.[155] Pornography also features numerous fetishes like: "'fat' porn, amateur porn, disabled porn, porn produced by women, queer porn, BDSM and body modification."[f]
Commercialism
Pornography is commercialized mainly through the sale of
In 2000, the total annual revenue from the sales and rentals of pornographic material in the US was estimated to be over $4 billion,[121] the hotel industry through the sale of adult movies to their customers as part of room service, over pay-per-view channels, had generated an annual income of about $180-$190 million.[121] Some of the major companies and hotel chains that were involved in the sale of adult films over pay-per-view platforms include; AT&T, Time Warner, DirecTV from General Motors, EchoStar, Liberty Media, Marriott International, Westin and Hilton Worldwide. The companies said their services are in response to a growing American market that wanted pornography delivered at home.[121][122]
Commercialization of pornography | |||
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Economics
The production and
Revenues of the adult industry in the United States are difficult to determine. A 1970 federal study estimated that the total retail value of hardcore pornography in the United States was no more than $5 million to $10 million.
Starting in the 1990s, Internet eased the access of pornography.[122] Although this development resulted in the decline of Video rentals, the revenues generated from pay-per-view models over the Internet provided much financial gains for pornography producers and credit card companies among others.[121] In 1998, Forrester Research published a report on the online "adult content" industry, estimating annual revenue at $750 million to $1 billion.[162] The introduction of home video and the World Wide Web in the late twentieth century led to a global growth in the pornography business.[163] Studies in 2001 had put the total US annual revenue (including video, pay-per-view, Internet and magazines) between $2.6 billion and $3.9 billion.[162]
As of 2011, pornography was becoming one of the biggest businesses in the United States.
Online pornography is available both for a fee and free of charge.
The technological era led to decline of the studio and "the rise of the pornography worker herself".[168] Newer ways of monetization have opened for the pornography workers who are taking the path of entrepreneurship.[168] "Performers are hustlers now," said Chanel Preston (a performer who was also chairperson of the Adult Performer Advocacy Committee), while noting that performers have to be creative to sustain their income and reach audience, both of which, she said are mainly achieved through "feature dancing, selling merchandise, webcamming", among other activities.[127] "Custom" pornography made according to the requests of customer clients has emerged as one new business niche.[77] The average career for the new age performer lasts about four to six months.[102] Before moving on to the business side, adult performers use studio works to advertise and build a brand image for themselves. They acquire an audience who would later pay at personal website or webcam performances.[168][127] Commercial webcamming, which emerged in the 1990s[169] as a niche sector in the adult entertainment industry, grew to become a multi billion dollar business by the mid 2020s.[170]
The exact economic size of the porn industry in the early-twenty-first century is unknown to anyone.[120] Kassia Wosick, a sociologist from New Mexico State University, estimated the global porn market value at $97 billion in 2015, with the US revenue estimated at $10 and $12 billion. IBISWorld, a leading researcher of various markets and industries, calculated total US revenue to reach $3.3 billion by 2020.[120][171]
Technology
Pornographers have taken advantage of each major technological advancement for the production and distribution of their services.[172] Pornography has been called an "erotic engine" and a driving force in the development of various media related technologies from the printing press, through photography (still and motion), to satellite TV, Home video, and streaming media.[173]
One of the world's leading anti-pornography campaigners, Gail Dines, has stated that "the demand for porn has driven the development of core cross-platform technologies for data compression, search, transmission and micro-payments."[32] Many of the technological developments that had been led by pornography have benefited other fields of human activity too.[32] In the early 2000s, Wicked Pictures pushed for the adoption of the MPEG-4 file format ahead of others, this later became the most commonly used format across high-speed Internet connections.[174] In 2009, Pink Visual became one of the first companies to license and produce content with a software introduced by a small toronto-based company called "Spatial view", which later made it possible to view 3-D content on iphones.[175]
As an early adopter of innovations, the pornography industry has been cited to be a crucial factor in the development and popularization of various media processing and communication technologies.
The way you know if your technology is good and solid is if it's doing well in the porn world.
— Susan Struble, spokesperson of Sun Microsystems[180]
Pornographic content accounted for most
Many of the innovative data rendering procedures, enhanced payment systems, customer service models, and security methods developed by pornography companies have been co-opted by other mainstream businesses.
Virtual reality sex
Some pornography is produced without human actors at all. The idea of computer-generated pornography was conceived very early as one of the obvious areas of application for computer graphics. Until the late 1990s, digitally manipulated pornography could not be produced cost-effectively. In the early 2000s, it became a growing segment as the modelling and animation software matured, and the rendering capabilities of computers improved. Further advances in technology allowed increasingly photorealistic 3D figures to be used in interactive pornography.[190][191][192] The first pornographic film to be shot in 3D was 3D Sex and Zen: Extreme Ecstasy, released on 14 April 2011, in Hong Kong.[193]
The various mediums for pornography depictions have evolved throughout the course of history, starting from prehistoric
Consumption
Pornography is a product made by adults for the consumption by adults.
A vast majority of men and considerable number of women in the US use porn.
The popular pornographic website
Researchers at McGill University ascertained that on viewing pornographic content, men reached their maximum arousal in about 11 minutes and women in about 12 minutes.[212] An average visit to a pornographic website lasts for 11.6 minutes.[213] Both marriage and divorce are found to be associated with lower subscription rates for adult entertainment websites.[214] Subscriptions are more widespread in regions that have higher measures of social capital.[215] Pornographic websites are most often visited during office hours.[216] As per a recent CNBC report, seventy per cent of online-porn access in the US happens between nine-to-five hours.[102]
Sexual arousal and sexual enhancement tend to be the primary motivations among the self-reported reasons by users for their pornography consumption.[198] Studies had found that greater levels of psychological distress leads to higher rates of pornography consumption.[198] Pornography may provide a temporary relief from stress, or anxiety. A need to assuage coping and boredom is also found to result in higher consumption of pornography.[198]
A 2006 study of Norwegian adults found that over 80% of the respondents used pornography at some point in their lives. A difference of 20% between men and women was observed in their respective use. Since the late 1960s, attitudes towards pornography have become more positive in Nordic countries, in Sweden and Finland the consumption of pornography has increased over the years.[217] In 2012 and 2013, interviews with large number of Australians revealed that in the past year 63% of men and 20% of women had viewed pornography.[218] In 2021, it was estimated that in modern countries, 46–74% of men and 16–41% of women are regular users of pornography.[198] In 2022, a national survey in Japan, of men and women aged 20 to 69 revealed that 76% of men and 29% of women had used pornography as part of their sexual activity.[219]
Figures from
Legality and regulations
The legal status of pornography varies widely from country to country.[221][222] Regulating hardcore pornography is more common than regulating softcore pornography.[223] Child pornography is illegal in almost all countries,[224][225] some countries have restrictions on rape pornography and zoophilic pornography.[225]
Pornography in the United States is legal provided it does not depict minors, and is not obscene.[208] The community standards, as indicated in the Supreme Court decision, of the 1973 Miller v. California case determine what constitutes as "obscene".[208] The US courts do not have jurisdiction over content produced in other countries, but anyone distributing it in the US is liable to prosecution under the same community standards.[208] As the courts consider community standards foremost in deciding any obscenity charge, the changing nature of community standards over the course of time and place makes instances of prosecution limited.[121][122]
In the United States, a person receiving unwanted commercial mail that he or she deems pornographic (or otherwise offensive) may obtain a Prohibitory Order.[226] Many online sites require the user to tell the website they are a certain age and no other age verification is required.[227] A total of 16 states and the Republican Party have passed resolutions declaring pornography a "public health" threat.[228] These resolutions are symbolic and do not put any restrictions but are made to sway the public opinion on pornography. The notion of pornography as a threat to public health is not supported by any international health organization.[228]
The adult film industry regulations in California requires that all performers in pornographic films use condoms. However, the use of condoms in pornography is rare.[229] As porn does better financially when actors are without condoms many companies film in other states.[230] Twitter is the popular social media platform used by the performers in porn industry as it does not censor content unlike Instagram and Facebook.[230][231]
Pornography in Canada, as in the US, criminalizes the "production, distribution, or possession" of materials that are deemed obscene. Obscenity, in the Canadian context, is defined as "the undue exploitation of sex" provided it is connected to images of "crime, horror, cruelty, or violence".[232] As to what is considered "undue" is decided by the courts, which assess the community standards in deciding whether exposure to the given material may result in any harm, with harm defined as "predisposing people to act in an anti-social manner".[232]
Pornography in the United Kingdom does not have the concept of community standards.[232] Following the highly publicized murder of Jane Longhurst, the UK government in 2009 criminalized the possession of what it terms as "extreme pornography".[234][235] The courts decide whether any material is legally extreme or not, conviction for penalty include fines or incarceration up to three years.[232] Content banned includes representations that are considered "grossly offensive, disgusting, or otherwise of an obscene character".[232] While there are no restrictions on depiction of male ejaculation, any depiction of female ejaculation in pornography is completely banned in the UK,[236] as well as in Australia.[237]
In most of Southeast Asia, Middle East, and China, the production, distribution, and possession of pornography is illegal and outlawed.[228] In Russia and Ukraine, webcam modeling is allowed provided it contains no explicit performances; in other parts of the world commercial webcamming is banned as a form of pornography.[228]
Disseminating pornography to a minor is generally illegal.[225] There are various measures to restrict minors' any access to pornography,[225] including protocols for pornographic stores.[225]
Pornography can infringe into basic human rights of those involved, especially when sexual consent was not obtained. Revenge porn is a phenomenon where disgruntled sexual partners release images or video footage of intimate sexual activity of their partners, usually on the Internet, without authorization or consent of the individuals involved.[238] In many countries there has been a demand to make such activities specifically illegal carrying higher punishments than mere breach of privacy, or image rights, or circulation of prurient material.[239][240] As a result, some jurisdictions have enacted specific laws against "revenge porn".[241]
What is not pornography
In the US, a July 2014 criminal case decision in
Drawing the line depends on time, place and context. Occidental mainstream culture has been increasingly getting "pornified" (i.e. influenced by pornographic themes, with mainstream films often including unsimulated sexual acts).[244] Since the very definition of pornography is subjective, material that is considered erotic or even religious in one society may be denounced as pornography in another.[15] When European travellers visited India in the 19th century, they were dismayed at the religious representation of sexuality on the Hindu temples and deemed them as pornographic. Similarly many films and television programs that are unobjectionable in contemporary Western societies are labelled as "pornography" in Muslim societies.[15] Thus, assessing a material as pornography is very much personalized; to rehash a cliché, "pornography is very much in the eye of the beholder".[15]
Copyright status
In the United States, some courts have applied US copyright protection to pornographic materials.[245] Some courts have held that copyright protection effectively applies to works, whether they are obscene or not,[246] but not all courts have ruled the same way.[247] The copyright protection rights of pornography in the United States has again been challenged as late as February 2012.[245]
STIs prevention and safer sex practices
Performers working in
Allan Ronald, a Canadian doctor and HIV/AIDS specialist who did groundbreaking studies on the transmission of STIs among prostitutes in Africa, said there's no doubt about the efficiency of the testing method, but he felt a little uncomfortable: "because it's giving the wrong message — that you can have multiple sex partners without condoms — but I can't say it doesn't work."[249][250]
Relatedly, it has been found that individuals who have received little sex education and/or perceive pornography as a source of information about sex are less apt to use condoms.[251][252] In 2020, the US National Sex Education Standards, released recommendations to incorporate porn literacy to students from grade 6 to 12 as part of sex education in the United States.[253]
Veteran performer and former nurse Nina Hartley, who has a degree in nursing, stated that the amount of time involved in shooting for a scene can be very long, and with condoms in place it becomes a painful proposition as their usage is uncomfortable despite the use of lube, causes friction burn, and opens up lesions in the genital mucosa.[249][254] Advocating the testing method for performers in the industry, Hartley said, "Testing works for us, and condoms work for outsiders."[254]
"We're tested every fourteen days. That is literally twenty-three more times than the average American. If that person makes it to their yearly physical. I have met tons of people that haven't been to the doctor in years. That scares me because they have no idea what their status is.... I don't hook up with people outside of the porn industry because I'm terrified. And I'm not the only one. There's many performers that know: if you go out into the wild, you will come back with something." — Ash Hollywood, Pornographic actress.[254]
Emphasizing that performers in the industry take necessary precautions like
Views on pornography
General
Pornography has been vouched to provide a safe outlet for sexual desires that may not be satisfied within relationships and be a facilitator of sexual release in people who cannot or do not want to have real-life partners.[176] Pornography is viewed by people in general for various reasons; varying from a need to enrich their sexual arousal, to facilitate orgasm, as an aid for masturbation, learn about sexual techniques, reduce stress, alleviate boredom, enjoy themselves, see representation of people like themselves, know their sexual orientation, improve their romantic relationships, or simply because their partner wants them to.[202] Researchers suggest four broad motivations for using pornography, namely: "using pornography for fantasy, habitual use, mood management, and as part of a relationship".[202]
Men are found to consume pornography more frequently than women, with the intent for consumption that may vary with men more likely to use pornography as a stimulant for sexual arousal during solitary sexual activity, while women are more likely to use pornography as a source of information or entertainment, and rather prefer using it together with a partner to enhance sexual stimulation during partnered sexual activity.[12] Studies have found that sexual functioning defined as "a person's ability to respond sexually or to experience sexual pleasure" is greater in women who consume pornography frequently than in women who do not. No such association was noticed in men.[12] Women who consume pornography are more likely to know about their own sexual interests and desires, and in turn be willing and able to communicate them during partnered sexual activity, it has been reported that in women the ability to communicate their sexual preferences is associated with greater sexual satisfaction for themselves.[12] Pornographic material is found to expand the sexual repertoire in women by making them learn new rewarding sexual behaviours such as clitoral stimulation and enhance their overall 'sexual flexibility'.[12] Women who consume pornography frequently are more easily aroused during partnered sex and are more likely to engage in oral sex compared to the women who do not view pornography.[12] Women users of pornography had reported (almost 50%) to have had engaged in cunnilingus, which research suggests is related to female orgasm, and to have had experienced orgasms more frequently than women who do not use pornography (87% vs. 64%).[202] Most people, probably do not consider pornography use by a partner as indulging in infidelity.[257]
A two year long survey (2018-2020) conducted to assess the role of pornography in the lives of highly educated medical university students, with median age of 24, in
Pornography has been noted for engrossing people "on more than masturbatory levels".
Feminist
Overall
Feminist movements in the late 1970s and 1980s dealt with the issues of pornography and sexuality in debates that are referred to as the "sex wars".[264] While some feminist groups seek to abolish pornography believing it to be harmful, other feminist groups oppose censorship efforts insisting it is benign.[13] A large scale study of data from the General Social Survey (2010–2018) refuted the argument that pornography is inherently anti-woman or anti-feminist and that it drives sexism. The study did not find a relationship between "pornography viewing" and "pornography tolerance" with higher sexism—a posit that was held by some feminists; it instead found higher pornography consumption and pornography tolerance among men to be associated with their greater support for gender equality. The study concluded that "pornography is more likely to be about the sex rather than the sexism".[13]
People who supported regulated pornography expressed lesser attitudes of sexism than people who sought to abolish pornography. Notably, non-feminists are found more likely to support a ban on pornography than feminists. Many feminists, both male and female, have reflected that the effects of pornography on society are neutral.[13] Users of pornography were found more egalitarian than nonusers; they are more likely to hold favorable attitudes towards women in positions of power and in workplaces outside home than the nonusers.[265] However, a 2021 review which compiled evidence from other empirical sources such as surveys found that representations of women in pornography may lead adolescent boys to view women as sexual objects, with disregard and disrespect for gender equality.[266]
Critical
A 2016 study authored by Black feminists criticised the American adult entertainment industry for what they perceive as omission and exclusion of black women in pornography, particularly in the interracial genre. As pornography becomes a kind of manual on how bodies in pleasure can look, and is "one of the few places where we see our bodies--and other people's bodies," it becomes imperative on pornography to represent "variety of forms", stated the feminist scholars.[267] A 2019 study of pornhub videos, uploaded between 2000 and 2016, noted that: 55% of male performers were White, while the rest were non-White. Among the female performers: approximately 37% were White, 28% Black, 17% Asian, 16% Latina, and the rest 2% others.[268][269] When collated with the US demographics of 2018, White women are significantly under-represented as pornography performers, while Asian and Black women appeared over-represented.[268]
Anti-pornography feminism argues that aesthetics of pornography demote Black women with undertones of racism.
Feminist resentment about pornography tend to focus on two concerns: that pornography depicts violence and aggression, and that pornography objectifies women.[270] Multiple analyses of pornographic videos found that Women have been overwhelmingly at the receiving end of aggression from male performers; with the reaction of Women being either positive or neutral towards aggression, which is at odds considering a report that found only 14.2% of US adult women find pain during sex as appealing.[270] Black women have been the targets of aggression and faced more violence from both Black and White men than did White women.[268] While Black men engaged in fewer intimate behaviours than White men; White women were found more likely to experience violence during sexual activity with White men than with Black men.[268] Asian women appeared less objectified, and treated with less aggression than White or Black women, but also they had less agency in sexual activities.[268]
A 2018 study of popular videos on
Anti-porn
Prominent anti-pornography feminists such as
Other sex work exclusionary feminists have insisted that pornography presents a severely distorted image of sexual consent, and that it reinforces sexual myths like: women are readily available–and desire to engage in sex at any time–with any man–on men's terms–and always respond positively to men's advances.[276]
Pro-porn
In contrast to the objections, other feminist scholars "ranging from Betty Friedan and Kate Millett to Karen DeCrow, Wendy Kaminer and Jamaica Kincaid" have supported the right to consume pornography.[277] The anti-porn feminist stranglehold began to loose when
The works of Camille Paglia established that westerners have been "pagan celebrants" for long and pornography has been an inseparable part of western culture.[278] Wendy McElroy has noted that both feminism and pornography are mutually related, with both thriving in environments of tolerance, and both repressed anytime regulations are placed on sexual expression.[279] Societies where pornography and sexual expression is prohibited are more likely to be the places where women are often subjected to violence and sexual abuse.[280]
Women's rights are far stronger in societies with liberal attitudes to sex – think of conservative countries such as Afghanistan, Yemen or China, and the place of women there. And yet, anti-porn campaigners neglect such issues entirely. A recent study by the US department of justice compared the four states that had highest broadband access and found there was a 27 per cent decrease in rape and attempted rape, and the four with the lowest had a 53 per cent increase over the same period.
Rise of feminist porn
The lesbian feminist movement of the 1980s is considered a seminal moment for the women in the porn industry as more women entered into the developmental side of the industry.[281] This allowed women to gear porn more towards women as they knew what women wanted, both from the perspective of actresses as well as the female audience. This change has been considered a good development as for a long time the porn industry has been directed by men for men. This move also sparked the arrival of making lesbian porn for lesbians instead of men.[281]
Furthermore, the advent of
"If feminists define pornography, per se, as the enemy, the result will be to make a lot of women ashamed of their sexual feelings and afraid to be honest about them. And the last thing women need is more sexual shame, guilt, and hypocrisy—this time served up by feminism" — Ellen Willis.[287]
Pay rates
Porn industry has been noted for being one of the few industries where women enjoy a power advantage in the workplace. "Actresses have the power," Alec Metro, one of the men in line, ruefully noticed of the X-rated industry. A former firefighter who claimed to have lost a bid for a job to affirmative action, Metro was already divining that porn might not be the ideal career choice for escaping the forces of what he called 'reverse discrimination.'[288] Female performers can often dictate which male actors they will and will not work with. Porn—at least, porn produced for a heterosexual audience—is one of the few contemporary occupations where the pay gap operates in the favour of women. The average actress makes fifty to a hundred per cent more money than her male counterpart.[288][289]
Psychological perspective
In analytical psychology, the human psyche is believed to be composed of psychological principles that are feminine as well as masculine in nature.[290] According to psychologist and author Giorgio Tricarico, as an individual moves through various life experiences, the psyche approaches a polarity of non-differentiation.[291] The ability to move towards this state of non-differentiation is assumed to be higher in females than males.[290] The feminine embodies particular qualities of the sacred or divine more broadly and deeply than the masculine.[290] The unconscious perception by males of this power in females is reasoned to be a cause for the intentional humiliation, wilful devaluation, and deliberate belittlement of women by men.[290]
Tricarico professed that modern-day pornography is a "desacralised, technological, and consumerist" equivalent of the ancient sacred prostitution – a custom that involved honouring of the sacred feminine and worship of the sacred prostitutes as the goddess herself.[292] He argued that women in porn, through their performance of various difficult actions as if they are delighting in them, would inadvertently approach the state of non-differentiation. An effect which he called as "intimation of hierophany".[290] "Porn actresses may embody the medium to enter what used to be the realm of the sacred," he said.[293] The porn actresses have been likened to the "descendants of the lost goddesses", who are now offering the gift of the "numinous" to all through their performances but are being unacknowledged or devalued by all for their contributions.[293]
The use of epithets like "bitch", "whore", "slut" for sexually active women is attributed to denial of the subjective feminine by men.[294] The subdued acceptance of female sexuality as a value in its own right is manifested when a man's admiration for a "bitch" gets subtended if she happens to be his wife or girlfriend.[294] Along with showing "admiration, lust, gratitude, and desire", men can show brazen hate and disgust towards women, this behavioural dichotomy had been ascribed to the "patriarchal hypocrisy" embedded in men.[294] Tricarico hoped that porn becomes a place where the male performers can discard patriarchal antics, the female performers would embrace facets of the sacred while continuing to present the world with glimpses of her grace, and the audience incorporate porn into their lives as a joyful experience – a genuine form of play that helps them approach non-differentiation.[295]
A 2013 comparative study of psychological characteristics of 177 porn actresses with regular women of similar age, ethnicity, and martial status revealed that the porn actresses had "higher levels of self-esteem, positive feelings, social support, sexual satisfaction, and spirituality" compared to the regular women.[296]
Religious
As most religions have long and vehemently opposed sexual natured things in general, religious people are found highly susceptible to experience great distress in their use of pornography. Religious people who use pornography tend to feel sexually ashamed.[297] Sexual shame—which arises from a person's perception of their self in other peoples mind, and a negative assessment of their own sexuality—is considered a powerful factor that over time governs individual behaviour.[297][298] As sexuality is interwoven into one's personal identity, sexual shame or sexual embarrassment are found to attack a person's very sense of self.[297]
When a sexual shaming event occurs, the person attributes causation to oneself, resulting in self condemnation and experience feelings of sadness, loneliness, anger, unworthiness, and rejection, along with a perceived judgment of their self by others.
The cause of attributing shame to sexuality is traced back to the
According to Indonesia's foremost Islamic preacher, Abdullah Gymnastiar, shame is a noble emotion commanded in the Qur'an and was held high by the prophet Muhammad, who had been quoted as saying "Faith is compiled of seventy branches... and shame is one of them." To cultivate shame in the believers, sexual gaze needs to be checked as unchecked gaze is believed to be the door through which Satan enters and soils the believers heart.[305] In 2006, when anti-pornography protests erupted in Indonesia, the world's most populous Muslim-majority country, over the publication of the inaugural Indonesian edition of Playboy – Abdullah called for a legislation to ban pornography and embarked on a mission to shroud the state with a sense of shame, giving the slogan "the more shameful, the more faithful". During these protests, Indonesia's foremost Islamic newspaper, Republika, published daily front page editorials which featured a logo of the word pornografi crossed out with a red X. The Jakarta office of Playboy Indonesia was ransacked by the members of Islamic Defenders Front (Front Pembela Islam or FPI), and bookstore owners were threatened not to sell any issue of the magazine. Consequently in December 2008, Indonesian lawmakers signed an anti-pornography bill into law with overwhelming political support.[305]
Highly religious people are more likely to support policies against pornography such as censorship than less religious people.[306] Religious people are prone to having obsessive thoughts regarding sin and punishment by God over their pornography use causing them to feel ashamed, and perceive themselves to have pornography addiction while also suffering from OCD related symptoms.[307] States that are highly religious and conservative were found to search for more pornography on the Internet.[308]
Critical
Neuroscience has noted that minds of the young are in developmental stages and exposure to emotionally charged material such as pornography would likely have an impact on them unlike on adults, and has suggested caution while enabling potential access to such material.[309] Opposition to Pornography use has been associated to many issues with Sexual Satisfaction,[310] Gender Violence,[311] and Marital Quality (wives watching pornography more frequently scored much better than the rest).[312]
Data from pornographic websites regarding the viewing habits of people is studied by academics to analyze the sexual preferences and mating choices.[313] More often men look for women who have larger chest and hips, with a smaller Waist–hip ratio.[209] Women are found to prefer men who are taller, stronger, appear highly masculine, and are in roles that can provide resources while being protective (CEO, doctor, athlete, lawmen).[314]
As per evaluation by medical professionals, pornography can neither be good nor bad as it does not endorse or advocate a single set of values regarding sex.[315] As such, individuals may circumspect their own values with regards to sex while evaluating pornography.[315] The relationship between pornography and its audience is found to be complex. While many users reported their use to have had positive effects, others especially women were found to be troubled with body image issues, the cause of which is attributed to the unrealistic image of "beauty" that pornography portrays.[315] The increasing prevalence of alleged beauty enhancing procedures such as breast augmentation and labiaplasty among the common populace has been attributed to the popularity of pornography.[316]
Studies on harmful effects of pornography include finding any potential influence of pornography on rape, domestic violence, sexual dysfunction, difficulties with sexual relationships, and child sexual abuse.[317] A 2020 study that analyzed depictions in video-pornography found that normative sexual behaviors (eg, vaginal intercourse, fellatio) were the most commonly depicted, while depictions of extreme acts of violence and rape were very rare.[318] No correlation has been found between pornography consumption and the practice of sexual consent or lack thereof.[319] A longitudinal study had ascertained that pornography use cannot be a perpetrating factor in intimate partner violence.[d][320]
There is no clear evidence to assume that pornography is a cause of rape.
See also
Notes
- ^ a b Pornography can be defined as "material [e.g., pictures, films, videos or text] deemed sexual, given the context, that has the primary intention of sexually arousing the consumer, and is produced and distributed with the consent of all persons involved" (McDonald & Kirkman, 2019, p. 163). Central in the definition of pornography is the consent of all persons involved. Therefore, materials that were produced or distributed without the consent of at least one person involved (e.g., "revenge porn", "child pornography") were excluded from this definition (McDonald & Kirkman, 2019).[12] Pornography is best defined as a medium, such as a picture, video, or text, that is intended to be treated as sexually arousing (Rea, [41]). [...] pornography is framed as an aid for sexual arousal (Parvez, [32]).[13]
- ^ a b c Anthropologist Paul Mellars of Stony Brook University in New York state says the focus on exaggerated sexual features fits with other artifacts found from the period, including phalluses carved out of bison horn and vulva inscribed on rocks. "It's sexually exaggerated to the point of being pornographic", Mellars says. "There's all this sexual symbolism bubbling up in that period. They were sex-mad." Conard used radiocarbon dates from bones and other artifacts found nearby to date the figurine. "It's at least 35,000 calendar years old, but I think it's much older than that", Conard says.[19]
- ^ a b Representative studies indicate that pornography use is a common recreational activity—equivalent with other digitally mediated behaviors (e.g., video games, social media)—with a majority of men and a sizable plurality of women reporting regular use of pornography.[211]
- ^ a b Using a large longitudinal sample of university students (N = 892) over a three-month time lag with two waves and a cross-lagged panel design, we found that pornography use does not prospectively predict the perpetration of intimate partner violence, and that the perpetration of intimate partner violence does not prospectively predict pornography use. Further, gender does not moderate these relationships.[320]
- ^
- ^ The pornographic genre is immense, and includes an enormous variety of styles catering to an equally vast range of tastes and fetishes. Certainly, mainstream heteroporn makes up the main bulk of the genre, and is most easily accessible. As stated above, this style of porn includes highly formulaic displays of paired or group sex, enacted by bodies exhibiting a conventional gendered aesthetic, moving through various sexual positions and penetrations. Nonetheless, some forms of porn are more normative than others, and indeed not all forms of heteroporn are normative, such as 'rimming', girl-on-boy strap-on anal sex, and hard-core BDSM. Pornography also includes an endless array of different kinds of fetish, 'fat' porn, amateur porn, disabled porn, porn produced by women, queer porn, BDSM and body modification. The list of non-mainstream porn is endless and displays bodies, gender scenarios and sexual activity differently to heteronormative formulations of mainstream heteroporn.[143]
- ^ If estimates generated from the RIA or NFSS are more valid, then pornography use is—or perhaps has become—a common and frequent experience among men, with just under half of all men using pornography in an average week. It is also not an uncommon or infrequent occurrence for women, with nearly one in five reporting pornography use in the past week.[203]
- ^ She didn't know that the dangers of it, like if the condom breaks, and that we could get more STI's with the micro-tears, and just the condoms in general: Swelling, yeast infections, things of that nature—she just had no idea.[255] After hours of sex with no breaks, attempting to endure the friction of the condom in your vagina or anus is...impossible. And to do this daily amounts to an occupational work hazard. Of course, due to the lack of respect towards the adult business and blatant disregard from society regarding the sexual comfort or even opinions of female performers, none of this mattered. No one asked us.[256]
- ^ In the bible, nakedness is a source of shame. The Book of Genesis 2:25 says of Adam and Eve, "And they were both naked, the man and his wife, and were not ashamed." That changed when they rebelled against God's commandment and ate of the tree of knowledge. From then on, they felt ashamed in each other's presence: "And the eyes of them both were opened, and they knew that they were naked; and they sewed fig leaves together, and made themselves aprons." This biblical interpretation of nakedness as shameful still deeply informs the social norms and conventions that determine how we deal with human physicality and sexuality. Although our notions of whether, how, where and in the presence of whom a person may be undressed have changed over the centuries, the shame we feel when we transgress the norms has remained.[300]
- ^ In much of Christian mythology, sex is a barrier to be overcome. Mortality is transcended and salvation achieved by redemption and ascetic denial of the senses, especially one's sexual impulses. Christian views have generally been very uncomfortable with any form of sensual pleasure, especially erotic and sexual pleasures. In the West, sexual pleasure is disruptive and dangerous to both the individual and society. It is a monster in the groin, which, if unleashed, could drive men to uncontrollable indulgence and destroy society. Work, not play, is redemptive. Sexual pleasure is moral when it leads men and women to undertake the burdens and responsibilities of raising children. In this view, sexual relations are immoral and sinful whenever they are indulged in outside marriage or without an openness to procreation. Thus orthodox Judaism, official Catholicism, and Protestant fundamentalists condemn masturbation and all forms of nonmarital, nonreproductive sex. Also unacceptable are alternate sexual behaviors and relationships—playful/recreational sex, gay unions, pre- and co-marital sex, and intimate friendships. In contrast, Hinduism celebrates sexual pleasure as a value in its own right, to be enjoyed for what it brings the participants. Kama, "the pursuit of love of pleasure, both sensual and aesthetic", represents one of the four goals of life in the Hindu tradition. In Hindu philosophy, Bhoga (sexual pleasure) is viewed as one of two paths leading to nirvana, the Buddha, and final deliverance. Yoga, spiritual exercise, is the alternate, and more demanding, path to liberation and the merging of the individual with the universal. In the Tantric yoga tradition, a man or woman can even practice channeling his or her sexual energies from the lowest chakra to the highest and achieve cosmic awareness and transcendence in solo sex or masturbation.[301]
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- ^ Nowak 2011, p. 198.
- ^ a b Mearian 2006.
- ^ a b Lynch 2007.
- ^ Gardiner 2007.
- ^ Hymes 2009.
- ^ Kernes 2014a.
- ^ AVN & 13 May 2014.
- ^ Nowak 2011, p. 210-211.
- ^ a b Barss 2010, p. 1.
- ^ Nowak 2011, p. 212.
- ^ a b Vice 2019.
- ^ Krueger 2017.
- ^ a b Griffin 2017.
- ^ The Independent & 10 August 2010.
- ^ Wagner 2007.
- ^ Weiss 2020.
- ^ Hay 2021.
- ^ Klein 2016.
- ^ a b c d e f Zattoni et al. 2021.
- ^ UdeM 2009.
- ^ Anthony 2012.
- ^ a b Bőthe et al. 2017.
- ^ a b c d e Fritz et al. 2022.
- ^ Regnerus, Gordon & Price 2015.
- ^ Grubbs et al. 2021.
- ^ Carroll et al. 2008.
- ^ Kleinman 2013.
- ^ Thousand 2011.
- ^ a b c d e Weitzer 2023, p. 7.
- ^ a b Salmon, Fisher & Burch 2020, p. 552.
- ^ Zane 2021.
- ^ Grubbs, Floyd & Kraus 2023.
- ^ Blue 2009.
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- ^ CBSNews & 23 April 2010.
- ^ Træen, Toril Sørheim & Hein 2006.
- ^ Weitzer 2023, p. 6-7.
- ^ Yushun & Daisuke 2022.
- ISBN 9789463014984.
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- ^ a b Kernes 2014b.
- ^ Aucoin 2006.
- ^ a b Goussé 2012.
- ^ Mitchell Bros. Film Group v. Cinema Adult Theater, 604 F.2d 852 (5th Cir.1979) and Jartech v. Clancy, 666 F.2d 403 (9th Cir.1982) held that obscenity could not be a defense to copyright claims.
- ^ Devils Films, Inc. v. Nectar Video Under, 29 F.Supp.2d 174, 175 (S.D.N.Y. 1998) refused to follow the Mitchell ruling and relied on the doctrine of "clean hands" to deny copyright protection to works seen as obscene.
- ^ Tarrant 2016, p. 133.
- ^ a b c McNeil Jr. 2012.
- ^ a b c Hay 2019.
- ^ Wright, Herbenick & Paul 2020.
- ^ Wright, Sun & Steffen 2018.
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También es necesario tener en cuenta que puede existir una limitación de causalidad inversa relacionada con los hallazgos actuales sobre la posibilidad de que padecer algún determinado problema de salud mental o tener conductas de agresividad puede conllevar a un aumento de consumo de pornografía mainstream.
[It is also necessary to keep in mind that there may be a reverse causality issue related to current findings on the possibility that having a certain mental health condition or exhibiting aggressive behaviors may lead to an increase in the consumption of mainstream pornography.] - ^ Chude-Sokei et al. 2016, p. 57.
- ^ a b c d e f Rothman 2021, p. 63.
- ^ Shor & Golriz 2019, p. 5.
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- ^ Comella & Erickson 2013, p. 79-96.
- ^ a b Vogels 2009.
- ^ Comella & Erickson 2013, p. 320-328.
- ^ McNair 2013, p. 18.
- ^ Salmon, Fisher & Burch 2020, p. 554.
- ^ Hester 2014, p. 24.
- ^ a b Faludi 1995, p. 65-66.
- ^ Morris 2016.
- ^ a b c d e Tricarico 2018, p. 68.
- ^ Tricarico 2018, p. 57, 68.
- ^ Tricarico 2018, p. 70-71.
- ^ a b Tricarico 2018, p. 77.
- ^ a b c Tricarico 2018, p. 75.
- ^ Tricarico 2018, p. 78.
- ^ Griffith et al. 2013, pp. 621–632.
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- ^ Gordon 2018, p. 105-123.
- ^ Cole 2014.
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- ^ Bullough & Bullough 2014, p. 516.
- ^ Flood 1996, p. 17.
- ^ Vatsyayana 1994, p. 42.
- ^ Vatsyayana 1994, p. 42-43.
- ^ a b Hoesterey 2016, p. 133–143.
- ^ Droubay, Butters & Shafer 2021, p. 1652–1667.
- ^ De Jong & Cook 2021, p. 695–709.
- ^ Shultz 2014.
- ^ Segal 2014.
- ^ Wright et al. 2018.
- ^ Lim, Carrotte & Hellard 2016.
- ^ Perry 2017.
- ^ Salmon, Fisher & Burch 2020, p. 550-551.
- ^ Salmon, Fisher & Burch 2020, p. 553.
- ^ a b c Villines & Litner 2020.
- ^ Tarrant 2016, p. 136.
- ^ Brown 2017.
- ^ Carrotte, Davis & Lim 2020.
- ^ McKee et al. 2022, p. 46.
- ^ a b Hatch et al. 2020.
- ^ Howitt 2022, p. 166.
- ^ Kutchinsky 1992.
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- ^ Diamond 1999.
- ^ Kraus, Voon & Potenza 2016, p. 2097–2106.
- ^ Kühn & Gallinat 2016, p. 67–83.
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- ^ McKee et al. 2022, p. 102.
- ^ Cole & Maiberg 2019.
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