Portuguese India

To facilitate the transport of people and goods to and from the Indian enclaves, the Salazar dictatorship established an airline, Transportes Aéreos da Índia Portuguesa,^[49] and airports at Goa, Daman and Diu.

In December 1961, India invaded the remaining Portuguese possessions.^[50] Portuguese forces had been given orders to either defeat the invaders or die.^{[citation needed]} The Governor of Portuguese India signed the Instrument of Surrender on 19 December 1961, thus ending 450 years of Portuguese rule in India.^[51]

Post-annexation

Status of the new territories

Free Dadra and Nagar Haveli existed as a de facto independent entity from its independence in 1954 until its merger with the Republic of India in 1961.^[52]

Following the annexation of

In 1967 a

The Citizenship Act of 1955 granted the Government of India the authority to define citizenship in the Indian Union. In exercise of its powers, the government passed the Goa, Daman and Diu (Citizenship) Order, 1962 on 28 March 1962 conferring Indian citizenship on all persons born on or before 20 December 1961 in Goa, Daman, and Diu.[58]

Indo-Portuguese relations

Portugal's

From the establishment of Portuguese India in 1505 until its disestablishment in 1961, an official with the title of governor or viceroy served as its highest authority, usually for a three-year term, initially with authority over all Crown territories east of the Cape of Good Hope. The latter title was attributed as a high honour while the monarchy lasted, however their duties were the same as governors.

The most important administrative structure of the State was put in place in the 16th century; it included the high court (relação), the superintendency of finances (vedoria da fazenda) run by a Crown appointed vedor, financial accounts office (casa dos contos) and the military registry and supply office (casa da matrícula).[65]

The extremely scattered nature of Portuguese holdings however, meant that the State was highly decentralized, with great power being held by individual fortress captains, their captain-generals or town halls, far away from Goa.^[66] Like the governors and viceroys, fortress captains served for three years, however their terms could be renovated.^[66] Sancho de Vasconcelos, captain-major of Ambon served for 19 years.^[66] In the most important captaincies, financial authority rested with the vedor (superintendent), while judicial authority was vested in an ouvidor ("ombundsman").

The Church played an important role in the State. The Pope had granted the Kings of Portugal exclusive ecclesiastical rights to religious patronage (Padroado) in their overseas possessions. After 1513 Portuguese eastern holdings were part of the bishopric of Funchal seated in Madeira island. After 1557 Goa became the seat of an archbishop with subordinate bishops in Cochin and Malacca.^[67] Further sees were later opened in Macau in 1576 and in Funai in 1588. Religious Orders of the Augustinians, Franciscans, Dominicans and Jesuits established mission headquarters in Goa, giving the Catholic Church a very visible presence and influence in the capital of the State of India, for which it earned the nickname of "Rome of the East", a fact commented by many foreign travellers.^[67]

In the most important settlements featured a câmara ("town hall"), with charters similar to equivalent cities in Portugal, and they played an important role in administration, as they were the only institution through which settlers could voice their opinions and make themselves heard.

Aside from the Portuguese themselves, the State often also ruled over non-Portuguese, non-Christian peoples, and in these cases often the traditional native structures were left in place. When Afonso de Albuquerque captured Goa, the Hindu inhabitants were left in possession of their lands; the pre-Portuguese system of land-ownership and administration of village communes codified and the rights of Brahmin or Khsatria ganvkars (shareholders) recognized, and tax collection was left to the Hindu

Trade had been one of the primary motivations behind the Portuguese expansion overseas, and one of the main objectives behind the foundation of the State of India was to take over the Europe-Asia trade, up to that point conducted mainly through the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, redirecting it around Africa via the Cape Route. Trade was processed either by the Crown through royal agents (feitores) working from royal trade posts (feitorias) and maintained by the royal finances, or by independent merchants, either Portuguese or otherwise.

One of the main tasks of royal factors was to acquire spices to be shipped back to Europe. In 1503, the Portuguese unloaded at Lisbon 30,000 quintals of spices, more than what the Venetians introduced in the European marked through Alexandria in Egypt.^[70] The overwhelming bulk of commodities imported to Europe by the Portuguese consisted of black pepper, which after 1520 was declared an official Crown monopoly.^[71] The Portuguese acquired most of their pepper in Kerala or Kanara in India. For most of the century, the Portuguese secured an overwhelming share of the pepper imports into Europe, supplying 75 per cent or more of Europes pepper.^[72] The Crown declared a monopoly on their commodities, such as cloves, nutmeg, mace, cinnamon, ginger, silk, pearls and the export of gold and silver bullion from Portugal to Asia.

The Portuguese Crown instituted a number of official carreiras, literally meaning "runs", connecting Goa to major Portuguese and non-Portuguese harbours around the Indian and Pacific oceans once a year. Initially conducted through Crown vessels, after 1560, the Crown began leasing them to private contractors, and by the late 16th century they were the norm.^[74] By 1580, the value of inter-Asian trade rights leases reached as high as two million cruzados - twice the value the Portuguese Crown earned from the Goa-Lisbon trade.^[75]

Portugal regulated and rerouted the Indian Ocean trade by imposing a system of safe-passes called cartaz.^[76] It was imposed most effectively on the west coast of India.^[77] The Portuguese Crown also collected high customs dues, most importantly at Goa, Hormuz, Malacca, Bassein and Diu, and in the 1580s it accounted for over 85% of the viceroys revenue.^[78]

Independent Portuguese merchants got involved in the inter-Asian trade, and the backbone of informal Portuguese presence and trade in Asia was formed of

Portuguese India Company was established in 1628, however with the Crown being its only major shareholder, it was liquidated five years later.[85] By that point, Portugal's share of pepper trade had fallen behind those of the Dutch VOC and the English EIC.^[86]

Portuguese trade was greatly reduced by

The State was largely urban, since its reason of being was to provide well-protected havens from which trade and communication could be conducted, controlled and dominated, hence only Goa, Daman, Bassein, Chaul and Colombo had any meaningful hinterland and rural populations.[92] After the massacre of the Portuguese in their feitoria in Calicut in 1500, practically every possession of the State was fortified, sometimes massively, and for this reason it resembled as much a network of maritime communications as an enormous perimeter of fortresses.^[93]

Portuguese India harboured a society that was officially Christian and European but influenced by the non-European setting into which it was inserted. At the top of the social pyramid were the European-born viceroys, officers, and clergymen, followed by the Portuguese casados and their Eurasian descendants, who could be wealthy merchants or hold important positions in the local câmara, and finally the native society. Portuguese living in Asia or east-Africa were generally more accepting of non-Christian beliefs and practices than their countrymen from Europe or Catholic clergy generally approved.^[94] At their peak in 1600, the total number of Portuguese casados across the State probably numbered about 5,500.^[95] Many casados followed a lifestyle that seemed to foreign visitors as remarkably relaxed and luxurious by European standards, some living in fine houses furnished in the Indian fashion with many servants, abundant and varied food that included a wide variety of fruits and poultry, consumed off Ming porcelain. Goan casados often dressed in shirts and white trousers while their wives usually wore saris.^[96]

Alongside fortresses, ecclesiastical buildings dominated the skyline of most Portuguese settlements, particularly in Goa, giving the city a distinctly European and Catholic flavour and a high profile to the Church.^[97] About 600 clergymen were concentrated in Goa out of perhaps 1800 east of the Cape of Good Hope in 1630.^[98] Nevertheless, the European and Christian Eurasian community in any Portuguese settlement of the State always constituted a minority, perhaps no more than 7% in the case of Goa, the rest being Hindus, Indian Christians, other Asians and Africans, free or slaves.^[99]

For these reasons, the State was culturally hybrid, distant as it was from Europe, with the façades and interiors of churches blending Portuguese and Asian iconographic traditions, while the domestic culture was likewise a compromise between East and West, with furniture, dress and food often more Asian than Portuguese.^[100]

Postal history

Early

Dual franking was tolerated from 22 December 1961 until 4 January 1962. Colonial (Portuguese) postmarks were tolerated until May 1962.

Gallery

• 
  Indo-Portuguese illustration of a Portuguese nobleman and Christian Indian women, from the Códice Casanatense.
• 
  16th century Indo-Portuguese illustration of the main deities of Hinduism at the Códice Casanatense.
• 
  16th century Indo-Portuguese illustration of a Hindu marriage at the Códice Casanatense.
• 
  16th century Indo-Portuguese illustration of Saint Thomas Christians at the Códice Casanatense.
• 
  16th century Indo-Portuguese illustration of Kanarese peasants at the Códice Casanatense.
• 
  18th century Indo-Portuguese cabinet
• 
  Indo-Portuguese cabinet
• 
  Indo-Portuguese writing cabinet
• 
  Indo-Portuguese furniture
• 
  Indo-Portuguese pistol
• 
  17th century Indo-Portuguese Christian ivory.

Currency

½ Tanga (1903)
Obverse: Lettering "CARLOS I REI DE PORTUGAL MCMIII", portrait of King Carlos I.	Reverse: Lettering "INDIA PORTUGUEZA ½ TANGA", coat of arms of Portuguese India.
800,000 coins minted, bronze. Engraver Valancio Alves.

1 Escudo (1959)
Obverse: Lettering "ESTADO·DA·INDIA", face value with Coat of arms of Portuguese India in the center.	Reverse: Lettering "REPÚBLICA · PORTUGUESA", year and Coat of arms of Portugal in the center.
6,000,000 coins minted. This coin was from State of India.

• 
  20 Portuguese bazarucos from 1799, reverse.
• 
  20 Portuguese bazarucos from 1799, obverse.
• 
  1866 1/8 tanga.
• 
  1 Portuguese India rupia, 1882.
• 
  1947 escudo coin.
• 
  1959 100 escudos.
• 
  60 Portuguese India centavos, 1959.
• 
  1938 5 rupias banknote reverse.
• 
  1938 5 rupias banknote obverse.

Architecture

• 
  Indo-Portuguese house
• 
  Portuguese villa
• 
  Goa Cathedral
• 
  The church of Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception in Panaji (Goa, India).
• 
  Old Goa,Church of Lady of Rosary
• 
  Bom Jesus Basilica, Goa.
• 
  House in Goa.
• 
  House in Goa.
• 
  Governors palace in Diu.
• 
  Church of São Paulo in Diu.

See also

History of South Asia
Outline Palaeolithic (2,500,000–250,000 BC) Madrasian culture Soanian culture Edakkal culture (5000–3000 BC)
Chalcolithic (3500–1500 BC) Anarta tradition (c. 3950–1900 BC) Ahar-Banas culture (3000–1500 BC) Pandu culture (1600–1500 BC) Malwa culture (1600–1300 BC) Jorwe culture (1400–700 BC)
Bronze Age (3300–1300 BC) Indus Valley Civilisation (3300–1300 BC)  – Early Harappan culture (3300–2600 BC)  – Mature Harappan culture (2600–1900 BC)  – Late Harappan culture (1900–1300 BC) Vedic Civilisation (2000–500 BC)  – Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (2000–1600 BC)  – Swat culture (1600–500 BC)
Macedonian Empire	(330–323 BC)
Maurya Empire	(321–184 BC)
Seleucid India	(312–303 BC)
Sangam period	(c. 600 BC – c. 300 AD)
Pandya Empire	(c. 300 BC – AD 1345)
Chera Kingdom	(c. 300 BC – AD 1102)
Chola Empire	(c. 300 BC – AD 1279)
Pallava Empire	(c. 250 AD – AD 800)
Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire	(c. 250 BC – c. AD 500)
Parthian Empire	(247 BC – AD 224)