Postmodern architecture
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Postmodernism |
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Postmodern architecture is a style or movement which emerged in the late 1950s as a reaction against the austerity, formality, and lack of variety of
Origins
Postmodern architecture emerged in the late 1950s as a reaction against the perceived shortcomings of modern architecture, particularly its rigid doctrines, its uniformity, its lack of ornament, and its habit of ignoring the history and culture of the cities where it appeared. In 1966, Venturi formalized the movement in his book, Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture. Venturi summarized the kind of architecture he wanted to see replace modernism:
I speak of a complex and contradictory architecture based on the richness and ambiguity of modern experience, including that experience which is inherent in art. ... I welcome the problems and exploit the uncertainties. ... I like elements which are hybrid rather than "pure", compromising rather than "clean" ... accommodating rather than excluding. ... I am for messy vitality over obvious unity. ... I prefer "both-and" to "either-or", black and white, and sometimes gray, to black or white. ... An architecture of complexity and contradiction must embody the difficult unity of inclusion rather than the easy unity of exclusion.[3]
In place of the functional doctrines of modernism, Venturi proposed giving primary emphasis to the façade, incorporating historical elements, a subtle use of unusual materials and historical allusions, and the use of fragmentation and modulations to make the building interesting.
In Italy at about the same time, a similar revolt against strict modernism was being launched by the architect Aldo Rossi, who criticized the rebuilding of Italian cities and buildings destroyed during the war in the modernist style, which had had no relation to the architectural history, original street plans, or culture of the cities. Rossi insisted that cities be rebuilt in ways that preserved their historical fabric and local traditions. Similar ideas were and projects were put forward at the Venice Biennale in 1980. The call for a post-modern style was joined by Christian de Portzamparc in France and Ricardo Bofill in Spain, and in Japan by Arata Isozaki.[6]
Notable postmodern buildings and architects
Robert Venturi
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The Guild House in Philadelphia by Robert Venturi (1960–1963)
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Vanna Venturi House by Robert Venturi (1964)
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Fire Station Number 4 in Columbus, Indiana (1968)
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Wisma 46 in Jakarta by Robert Venturi (1996)
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Carson Hall, Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire
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Trabant Center at the University of Delaware in Newark, DE (1996)
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Episcopal Academy Chapel
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Frist Campus Center at Princeton University (2000)
Michael Graves
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Portland Building by Michael Graves (1982)
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Radisson Blu Astrid Hotel in Antwerp (1993)
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The Denver Public Library by Michael Graves (1995)
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IFC building in Washington, D.C. (1996)
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Castalia building in The Hague (1998)
Charles Moore
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Piazza d'Italia in New Orleans, by Charles Moore, completed 1978
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National Dong Hwa University by Charles Moore (1992)
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Beverly Hills Civic Center by Charles Moore (1990)
The most famous work of architect
The Haas School of Business at the University of California, Berkeley blends in with both the neo-Renaissance architecture of the Berkeley campus and with picturesque early 20th century wooden residential architecture in the neighboring Berkeley Hills.
Philip Johnson
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550 Madison Avenue (Formerly AT&T Building) in Manhattan, New York City, by Philip Johnson (1982)
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Bank of America Center in Houston, Texas by Philip Johnson(1983)
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PPG Place, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania by Philip Johnson (1979–1984)
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500 Boylston Street building in Boston, Massachusetts, by Philip Johnson (1989)
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400 West Market in Louisville, Kentucky by Philip Johnson (1993)
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Glass house Pavilion for the Glass House in New Canaan, Connecticut (1995)
With the AT&T Building (now named
In 1995, he constructed a postmodern gatehouse pavilion for his residence, Glass House. The gatehouse, called "Da Monstra", is 23 feet high, made of gunite, or concrete shot from a hose, colored gray and red. It is a piece of sculptural architecture with no right angles and very few straight lines, a predecessor of the sculptural contemporary architecture of the 21st century.[10]
Frank Gehry
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Gehry residence inSanta Monica(1978)
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Norton Beach House,Venice, California(1983)
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Dancing House in Prague (1996)
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Guggenheim Bilbao, Bilbao, Spain (1997)
César Pelli
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200 Liberty Street, formerly One World Financial Center in New York City (1986)
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225 Liberty Street, formerly Two World Financial Center in New York City (1987)
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200 Vesey Street, formerly Three World Financial Center, and American Express Tower, in New York City (1985)
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250 Vesey Street, formerly Four World Financial Center in New York City (1986)
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The Petronas Towers, also known as Petronas Twin Towers, in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (1996)
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One Canada Square in Canary Wharf, London, (1991)
Pelli was named one of the ten most influential living American Architects by the American Institute of Architects in 1991. In 1995, he was awarded the American Institute of Architects Gold Medal.[12][15] In May 2004, Pelli was awarded an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from the University of Minnesota Duluth where he designed Weber Music Hall.[26] In 2005, Pelli was honored with the Connecticut Architecture Foundation's Distinguished Leadership Award.[27]
Buildings designed by Pelli during this period are marked by further experimentation with a variety of materials (most prominently stainless steel) and his evolution of the skyscraper. One Canada Square at Canary Wharf in London (opened in 1991); Plaza Tower in Costa Mesa, California (completed 1991); and the NTT Headquarters in Tokyo (finished 1995) were preludes to a landmark project that Pelli designed for Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.[25] The Petronas Towers were completed in 1997, sheathed in stainless steel and reflecting Islamic design motifs.[28] The dual towers were the world's tallest buildings until 2004.[29] That year, Pelli received the Aga Khan Award for Architecture for the design of the Petronas Towers[30] Pelli's design for the National Museum of Art in Osaka, Japan, was completed 2005, the same year that Pelli's firm changed its name to Pelli Clarke Pelli Architects to reflect the growing roles of senior principals Fred W. Clarke and Pelli's son Rafael.[28]
Postmodernism in Europe
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Hanse-Viertel, a store gallery in Hamburg, Northern Germany, by Gerkan, Marg and Partners (1980)
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State University of Music and Performing Arts in Stuttgart, Germany by James Stirling (1980s)
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Amoreiras towers in Lisbon, by Tomás Taveira (1985)
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No 1 Poultry, an office building and shops in London, by James Stirling (completed 1997)
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Sainsbury Wing of theNational Gallery in Londonby Robert Venturi (1991)
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Frankfurt, Germany, by Helmut Jahn, (completed 1991)
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Top of the Messeturm in Frankfurt
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The Groninger Museum, Netherlands, by Alessandro Mendini et al., (completed 1994)
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Manggha Museum of Japanese Art and Technology in Kraków, Poland, by Arata Isozaki and Krzysztof Ingarden (1994)
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TheBonnefanten Museum in Maastricht, the Netherlands by Aldo Rossi(1995)
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Holy Trinity Cathedral and the Russian Orthodox Spiritual and Cultural Centre, Paris (2016) by Jean-Michel Wilmotte[33]
While postmodernism was best known as an American style, notable examples also appeared in Europe. In 1991 Robert Venturi completed the Sainsbury Wing of the
One of the early postmodernist architects in Europe was
One of the most visible examples of the postmodern style in Europe is the
The Italian architect
The Spanish architect
The works of Austrian architect Friedensreich Hundertwasser (1928–2000) are occasionally considered a special expression of postmodern architecture.
Postmodernism in Japan
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The Museum of Wood Culture by Tadao Ando (1995)
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Bennesse House in Naoshima, Kagawa, Japan by Tadao Ando
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Isozaki Arata(1986–1990)
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Isozaki Arata(1995)
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Kyoto Train Station in Kyoto by Hiroshi Hara (1991–1997)
The Japanese architects
Concert halls – Sydney Opera House and the Berlin Philharmonic
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The Sydney Opera House by Jørn Utzon (1957–1973)
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Façade of the Berliner Philharmonie by Hans Scharoun (1963)
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"Vineyard Style"; The orchestra surrounded by the audience in the Berlin Philharmonic
The
One of the most influential buildings of the postmodern period was the Berlin Philharmonic, designed by Hans Scharoun (1893–1972) and completed in 1963. The exterior, with its sloping roofs and glided façade, was a distinct break from the earlier, more austere modernist concert halls. The real revolution was inside, where Scharoun placed the orchestra in the center, with the audience seated on terraces around it. He described it this way: "The form given to the hall is inspired by a landscape; In the center is a valley, at the bottom of which is found the orchestra. Around it on all sides rise the terraces, like vineyards. Corresponding to an earthly landscape, the ceiling above appears like a sky." Following his description, future concert halls, such as the Walt Disney Concert Hall by Frank Gehry in Los Angeles, and the Philharmonie de Paris of Jean Nouvel (2015) used the term "vineyard style" and placed the orchestra in the center, instead of on a stage at the end of the hall.[41]
Characteristics
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Contradiction (in this case, the mix between monumental curving forms, columns, bossages, but also other Classical elements, and High-Tech glazing, with highly saturated colours) – Neue Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart, Germany, by James Stirling (1984)[44]
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Stripes on facades – No 1 Poultry, London, by James Stirling (designed in 1988 but built in 1997)[45]
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Quotations (uses of elements and ornaments taken from pre-Modernist styles, often highly simplified) – Dolphin Hotel, Orlando, Florida, US, with urn tops that are reminiscent of urns that decorate corners, tops and roof railings of Classical buildings and furniture, by Michael Graves (1989)[46]
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Complexity – Groninger Museum, Groningen, the Netherlands, by Alessandro Mendini with Michele de Lucci, Philippe Starck and Coop Himmelb(l)au (1994)[47]
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Polychromy and highly saturated colours – Main hall of the Judge Business School, University of Cambridge, England, by John Outram (1995)[48]
Complexity and contradiction
Postmodern architecture first emerged as a reaction against the doctrines of modern architecture, as expressed by modernist architects including Le Corbusier and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. In place of the modernist doctrines of simplicity as expressed by Mies in his famous "less is more;" and functionality, "form follows function" and the doctrine of Le Corbusier that "a house is a machine to live in," postmodernism, in the words Robert Venturi, offered complexity and contradiction. Postmodern buildings had curved forms, decorative elements, asymmetry, bright colours, and features often borrowed from earlier periods. Colours and textures were unrelated to the structure or function of the building. Rejecting the "puritanism" of modernism, it called for a return to ornament, and an accumulation of citations and collages borrowed from past styles. It borrowed freely from classical architecture, rococo, neoclassical architecture, the Vienna Secession, the British Arts and Crafts movement, the German Jugendstil.[50]
Postmodern buildings often combined astonishing new forms and features with seemingly contradictory elements of classicism. James Stirling the architect of the Neue Staatsgalerie in Stuttgart, Germany (1984), described the style as "representation and abstraction, monumental and informal, traditional and high-tech."[51]
Fragmentation
Postmodern architecture often breaks large buildings into several different structures and forms, sometimes representing different functions of those parts of the building. With the use of different materials and styles, a single building can appear like a small town or village. An example is the Abteiberg Museum by Hans Hollein in Mönchengladbach (1972–1974).[52]
Asymmetric and oblique forms
Asymmetric forms are one of the trademarks of postmodernism. In 1968, the French architect Claude Parent and philosopher Paul Virilio designed the church Saint-Bernadette-du-Banlay in Nevers, France, in the form of a massive block of concrete leaning to one side. Describing the form, they wrote: "a diagonal line on a white page can be a hill, or a mountain, or slope, an ascent, or a descent." Parent's buildings were inspired in part by concrete German blockhouses he discovered on the French coast which had slid down the cliffs, but were perfectly intact, with leaning walls and sloping floors. Postmodernist compositions are rarely symmetric, balanced and orderly. Oblique buildings which tilt, lean, and seem about to fall over are common.[53]
Polychromy
Color is an important element in many postmodern buildings; to give the façades variety and personality, colored glass is sometimes used, or ceramic tiles, or stone. The buildings of Mexican architect
Humor and "camp"
Humor is a particular feature of many postmodern buildings, particularly in the United States. An example is the Binoculars Building in the Venice neighborhood of Los Angeles, designed by Frank Gehry in collaboration with the sculptor Claes Oldenburg (1991–2001). The gateway of the building is in the form of an enormous pair of binoculars; cars enter the garage passing under the binoculars. "Camp" humor was popular during the postmodern period; it was an ironic humor based on the premise that something could appear so bad (such as a building that appeared about to collapse) that it was good. In 1964, American critic Susan Sontag defined camp as a style which put its accent on the texture, the surface, and style to the detriment of the content, which adored exaggeration, and things which were not what they seemed. Postmodern architecture sometimes used the same sense of theatricality, sense of the absurd and exaggeration of forms.[54]
The aims of postmodernism, which include solving the problems of Modernism, communicating meanings with ambiguity, and sensitivity for the building's context, are surprisingly unified for a period of buildings designed by architects who largely never collaborated with each other. These aims do, however, leave room for diverse implementations as can be illustrated by the variety of buildings created during the movement.
Theories of postmodern architecture
The characteristics of postmodernism allow its aim to be expressed in diverse ways. These characteristics include the use of sculptural forms, ornaments, anthropomorphism and materials which perform trompe-l'œil. These physical characteristics are combined with conceptual characteristics of meaning. These characteristics of meaning include pluralism, double coding, flying buttresses and high ceilings, irony and paradox, and contextualism.
The sculptural forms, not necessarily organic, were created with much ardor. These can be seen in Hans Hollein's Abteiberg Museum (1972–1982). The building is made up of several building units, all very different. Each building's forms are nothing like the conforming rigid ones of Modernism. These forms are sculptural and are somewhat playful. These forms are not reduced to an absolute minimum; they are built and shaped for their own sake. The building units all fit together in a very organic way, which enhances the effect of the forms.
After many years of neglect, ornament returned. Frank Gehry's Venice Beach house, built in 1986, is littered with small ornamental details that would have been considered excessive and needless in Modernism. The Venice Beach House has an assembly of circular logs which exist mostly for decoration. The logs on top do have a minor purpose of holding up the window covers. However, the mere fact that they could have been replaced with a practically invisible nail, makes their exaggerated existence largely ornamental. The ornament in Michael Graves' Portland Municipal Services Building ("Portland Building") (1980) is even more prominent. The two obtruding triangular forms are largely ornamental. They exist for aesthetic or their own purpose.[citation needed]
Postmodern buildings sometimes utilize trompe-l'œil, creating the illusion of space or depths where none actually exist, as has been done by painters since the Romans. The Portland Building (1980) has pillars represented on the side of the building that to some extent appear to be real, yet they are not.[citation needed]
The Hood Museum of Art (1981–1983) has a typical asymmetrical façade which was at the time prevalent throughout postmodern buildings.[citation needed]
Robert Venturi's Vanna Venturi House (1962–1964) illustrates the postmodernist aim of communicating a meaning and the characteristic of symbolism. The façade is, according to Venturi, a symbolic picture of a house, looking back to the 18th century. This is partly achieved through the use of symmetry and the arch over the entrance.[citation needed]
Perhaps the best example of irony in postmodern buildings is
Double coding meant the buildings convey many meanings simultaneously. The
The characteristics of postmodernism were rather unified given their diverse appearances. The most notable among their characteristics is their playfully extravagant forms and the humour of the meanings the buildings conveyed.[citation needed]
Postmodern architecture as an international style – the first examples of which are generally cited as being from the 1950s – but did not become a movement until the late 1970s
Postmodern architecture has also been described as
One building form that typifies the explorations of postmodernism is the traditional gable roof, in place of the iconic flat roof of modernism. Shedding water away from the center of the building, such a roof form always served a functional purpose in climates with rain and snow, and was a logical way to achieve larger spans with shorter structural members, but it was nevertheless relatively rare in Modernist buildings.[b] However, postmodernism's own modernist roots appear in some of the noteworthy examples of "reclaimed" roofs. For instance, Robert Venturi's Vanna Venturi House breaks the gable in the middle, denying the functionality of the form, and Philip Johnson's 1001 Fifth Avenue building in Manhattan[c] advertises a mansard roof form as an obviously flat, false front. Another alternative to the flat roofs of modernism would exaggerate a traditional roof to call even more attention to it, as when Kallmann McKinnell & Wood's American Academy of Arts and Sciences in Cambridge, Massachusetts, layers three tiers of low hipped roof forms one above another for an emphatic statement of shelter.
Relationship to previous styles
A new trend became evident in the last quarter of the 20th century as some architects started to turn away from modern
Another return was that of the "wit, ornament and reference" seen in older buildings in
Roots of postmodernism
The postmodernist movement is often seen (especially in the US) as an American movement, starting in
The aims of postmodernism or late-modernism begin with its reaction to modernism; it tries to address the limitations of its predecessor. The list of aims is extended to include communicating ideas with the public often in a then humorous or witty way. Often, the communication is done by quoting extensively from past architectural styles, often many at once. In breaking away from modernism, it also strives to produce buildings that are sensitive to the context within which they are built.
Postmodernism has its origins in the perceived failure of modern architecture.[58] Its preoccupation with functionalism and economical building meant that ornaments were done away with and the buildings were cloaked in a stark rational appearance. Many felt the buildings failed to meet the human need for comfort both for body and for the eye, that modernism did not account for the desire for beauty. The problem worsened when some already monotonous apartment blocks degenerated into slums. In response, architects sought to reintroduce ornament, color, decoration and human scale to buildings. Form was no longer to be defined solely by its functional requirements or minimal appearance.
Changing pedagogies
Critics of the reductionism of modernism often noted the abandonment of the teaching of architectural history as a causal factor. The fact that a number of the major players in the shift away from modernism were trained at Princeton University's School of Architecture, where recourse to history continued to be a part of design training in the 1940s and 1950s, was significant. The increasing rise of interest in history had a profound impact on architectural education. History courses became more typical and regularized. With the demand for professors knowledgeable in the history of architecture, program were developed including the Advanced Masters-Level Course in the History and Theory of Architecture offered by Dalibor Vesely and Joseph Rykwert at the University of Essex in England between 1968 and 1978. It was the first of its kind.
Other programs followed suit, including several PhD programs in schools of architecture that arose to differentiate themselves from art history PhD programs, where architectural historians had previously trained. In the US,
The creation of these programs was paralleled by the hiring, in the 1970s, of professionally trained historians by schools of architecture: Margaret Crawford (with a PhD from UCLA) at
Postmodernism with its diversity possesses sensitivity to the building's context and history, and the client's requirements. The postmodernist architects often considered the general requirements of the urban buildings and their surroundings during the building's design. For example, in
Subsequent movements
Following the postmodern riposte against modernism, various trends in architecture established, though not necessarily following principles of postmodernism. Concurrently, the recent movements of
The
Postmodern architects
Some of the best-known and influential architects in the postmodern style are:
- Joel Bergman
- Barbara Bielecka
- Ricardo Bofill
- John Burgee
- Peter Eisenman
- Terry Farrell
- Frank Gehry
- James Gowan
- Michael Graves
- Hans Hollein
- Arata Isozaki
- Helmut Jahn
- Jon Jerde
- Philip Johnson[67]
- Edward Jones
- Hans Kollhoff
- Ricardo Legorreta
- Ernst Lohse
- Charles Moore
- William Pedersen
- César Pelli
- Boris Podrecca
- John C. Portman Jr.
- Paolo Portoghesi
- Antoine Predock
- Kevin Roche
- Aldo Rossi
- Carlo Scarpa
- Denise Scott Brown
- Robert A. M. Stern
- James Stirling
- Tomás Taveira
- Siavash Teimouri
- Robert Venturi
- Michael Wilford
- James Wines
- Eberhard Zeidler
- Éolo Maia
- Chu-yuan Lee
Other examples of postmodern architecture
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Park of Can Sabaté Barcelona, by Daniel Navas, Neus Solé and Imma Jansana. completed 1984
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The Fairmont, San Jose CA. Completed 1987
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Minneapolis, by César Pelli, completed 1988
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Marriott Marquis, San Francisco, CA. Completed 1989
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SunTrust Tower in Jacksonville, by KBJ Architects, completed 1989
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TheChicago, Illinois, by Hammond, Beeby & Babka, completed 1991
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, completed 1993
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William Pedersen, completed 1993
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L'Auberge du Lac Resort in Lake Charles, Louisiana, by Joel Bergman, completed 2005
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One Towne Square in Southfield, Michigan.
See also
- Charles Jencks
- New classical architecture, a reference style to historical architecture, emerged from postmodernism. It creates more accurate references of historical architecture styles.
- Third Bay Tradition
Explanatory footnotes
- ^ Pelli studied architecture at the Universidad Nacional de Tucumán.[18][19] He graduated in 1949, after which he designed low-cost housing projects.[20] In 1952, he attended the University of Illinois School of Architecture in the United States for advanced study in architecture, and received his Master of Science in Architecture degree in 1954.[14][21]
- ^ These Modernist buildings were, after all, "machines for living," according to LeCorbusier, and machines did not usually have gabled roofs.
- ^ 1001 Fifth Avenue building in Manhattan is not to be confused with Portland's Congress Center, once referred to by the same name.
- ^ But postmodernism did not advocate simply recreating classical designs, as had been done in neoclassical architecture.
- ^ Modern architectural response analyzed by Thomas Schumacher in "Contextualism: Urban Ideals and Deformations", and by Colin Rowe and Fred Koetter in Collage City[57]
References
- ^ Hopkins 2014, p. 200.
- ^ Katherine McGrath (18 February 2020). "15 Playfully Bold Examples of Postmodern Architecture". Architectural Digest.
- ^ Cited in review of Robert Venturi's "Complexities and Contradiction in Architecture" by Martino Stierli, in Architectural Review, 22 December 2016
- ^ Ghirardo 1997, p. 18.
- ^ Ghirardo 1997, p. 17.
- ^ Ghirardo 1997, pp. 17–23.
- ^ a b Taschen 2016, p. 638.
- ^ Allen John Scott, Edward W. Soja, The City: Los Angeles and Urban Theory at the End of the Twentieth Century, Los Angeles,
- ^ Taschen 2016, pp. 314–317.
- ^ a b Taschen 2016, p. 317.
- ^ Taschen 2016, pp. 220–223.
- ^ a b c "Master of the Schuylkill – Architect César Pelli". Patriot Harbor Lines. Retrieved September 12, 2016.
- ^ "A Conversation with Cesar Pelli". New Haven Living. July 2013. Retrieved September 12, 2016.
- ^ a b c "Cesar Pelli: Connections". National Building Museum. Retrieved September 12, 2016.
- ^ a b Benjamin Forgey. "COMSAT Alumni & Retirees Association". COMARA.org. Retrieved April 21, 2013.
- ^ "2008 Lynn S. Beedle Award Winner". Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. Retrieved May 17, 2012.
- ^ "César Pelli: 'I avoided a style'". La Gaceta. June 10, 2012. Retrieved September 12, 2016.
- ^ Marcelo Gardinetti (June 2012). "César Pelli Tucuman". Technne. Retrieved September 12, 2016.
- ^ Charles E. Gagit Jr. (June 1, 2015). The Groundbreakers: Architects in American History Their Places and Times. Transaction Publishers.
- ^ Murphy, Brian (July 19, 2019). "César Pelli, celebrated architect of sweep and harmony, dies at 92". The Washington Post.
- ^ "Cesar Pelli gives convocation address at University of Illinois". Pelli Clarke Pelli Architects. May 17, 2014. Retrieved September 12, 2016.
- ^ a b Charles E. Gagit, Jr. (June 1, 2015). The Groundbreakers: Architects in American History Their Places and Times. Transaction Publishers.
- ^ Nicholas Von Hoffman (February 28, 2005). "Cesar Pelli Architecture and Design". Architectural Digest. Retrieved September 12, 2016.
- ^ Paola Singer (May 10, 2016). "César Pelli and His Nonchalant Architecture". Surface Magazine. Retrieved September 12, 2016.
- ^ a b Michael J. Crosbie. "Introduction: A Conversation with Cesar Pelli." Cesar Pelli: Selected and Current Works. Mulgrave: Images Publishing Group, 1993.
- ^ "UMD to honor Weber Music Hall architect at commencement May 13". Budgeteer News. April 30, 2004. Retrieved September 12, 2016.
- ^ Connecticut Architecture Foundation [1] Archived October 9, 2017, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved November 30, 2016.
- ^ a b Michael J. Crosbie. Pelli Clarke Pelli Architects. Basel: Birkhäuser Verlag, 2013.
- ^ "Petronas Twin Towers". Culture Now. Retrieved September 12, 2016.
- ^ Linda Hales (November 27, 2004). "The Spirit Behind the Aga Khan Awards". Washington Post. Retrieved September 12, 2016.
- ^ Postmodern landscape architecture: theoretical, compositional characteristics and design elements with the analysis of 25 projects. Anna EPLÉNYI, Brigitta OLÁH-CHRISTIAN 2015
- ^ Nieuw ontwerp Schouwburgplein bekend 12.02.10 https://www.rijnmond.nl/nieuws/18748/nieuw-ontwerp-schouwburgplein-bekend
- ISBN 978-0-7148-7925-3.
- ^ De Bure 2015, p. 48.
- ^ Taschen 2016, p. 604).
- ^ The Guardian, London, June 19, 1992
- ^ Prima 2006, p. 353.
- ^ Taschen 2016, pp. 24–27.
- ^ Taschen 2016, pp. 304–305.
- ^ Taschen 2016, p. 634.
- ^ De Bure 2015, p. 160.
- ISBN 978-0-7148-7812-6.
- ISBN 978-1-85669-584-8.
- ISBN 978-0-7148-7925-3.
- ISBN 978-0-500-51914-1.
- ISBN 978-0-7148-7812-6.
- ^ Hopkins 2014, p. 73.
- ISBN 978-0-500-51914-1.
- ISBN 978-0-7148-7812-6.
- ^ De Bure, 2015 & pages 47–49.
- ^ Hopkins 2014, p. 202.
- ^ Hopkins 2014, pp. 200–201.
- ^ De Bure 2015, p. 161.
- ^ Hopkins 2014, p. 203.
- ^ Heinrich Klotz, The History of Postmodern Architecture, MIT Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, 1988
- ^ Pardis, Tom W. (ed.). "Postmodern.com architecture website". Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University. Archived from the original on 2009-07-08. Retrieved 2009-09-17 – via jan.ucc.nau.edu.
site moved to Paradis, Tom W. (ed.). "American Architectural Styles: An Introduction". Retrieved 2020-06-03. - ISBN 1-56898-053-1.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4000-4359-0.
- ^ Mark Jarzombek, "The Disciplinary Dislocations of Architectural History," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 58/3 (September 1999), p. 489. See also other articles in that issue by Eve Blau, Stanford Anderson, Alina Payne, Daniel Bluestone, Jeon-Louis Cohen and others.
- ^ Cornell University Dept. of Architecture website[2]
- ^ Charter of the New Urbanism
- ^ "Beauty, Humanism, Continuity between Past and Future". Traditional Architecture Group. Archived from the original on 5 March 2018. Retrieved 23 March 2014.
- ^ Issue Brief: Smart-Growth: Building Livable Communities. American Institute of Architects. Retrieved on 2014-03-23.
- ^ "Driehaus Prize". Notre Dame School of Architecture. Retrieved 23 March 2014.
Together, the $200,000 Driehaus Prize and the $50,000 Reed Award represent the most significant recognition for classicism in the contemporary built environment
- ^ "United States Embassy Chancery Building". Architectural Record. 184: 84. 1996.
- ^ Flores, Paola (5 July 2014). "From street stall to mini-mansion". Toronto Star.
- ISSN 1062-7928.
General and cited references
- Bony, Anne (2012). L'Architecture Moderne (in French). Larousse. ISBN 978-2-03-587641-6.
- De Bure, Gilles (2015). Architecture contemporaine- le guide (in French). Flammarion. ISBN 978-2-08-134385-6.
- Ghirardo, Diane (1996). Architecture after Modernism. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 2-87811-123-0.
- Hopkins, Owen (2014). Les styles en architecture- guide visuel (in French). Dunod. ISBN 978-2-10-070689-1.
- Klotz, Heinrich (1998). History of Post-Modern Architecture. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-11123-3.
- Poisson, Michel (2009). 1000 Immeubles et monuments de Paris (in French). Parigramme. ISBN 978-2-84096-539-8.
- Prina, Francesca; Demaratini, Demartini (2006). Petite encyclopédie de l'architecture (in French). Solar. ISBN 2-263-04096-X.
- Taschen, Aurelia and Balthazar (2016). L'Architecture Moderne de A à Z (in French). Bibliotheca Universalis. ISBN 978-3-8365-5630-9.
- Robert Venturi (1977). Learning from Las Vegas: The Forgotten Symbolism of Architectural Form. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-22015-6.
Further reading
- Postmodern Architecture: Restoring Context Princeton University Lecture
- Postmodern Architecture and Urbanism University of California–Berkeley Lecture
External links
- About Postmodernism
- Postmodern architecture at archINFORM
- Gallery of Postmodern Houses
- Post Modern Architecture at Great Buildings Online (archived 10 January 2007)