Potato
Potato | |
---|---|
Potato cultivars appear in a variety of colors, shapes, and sizes. | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Asterids |
Order: | Solanales |
Family: | Solanaceae |
Genus: | Solanum |
Species: | S. tuberosum
|
Binomial name | |
Solanum tuberosum |
The potato
Wild potato
The Spanish introduced potatoes to Europe in the second half of the 16th century. They are a
Like the tomato, the potato is a nightshade in the genus Solanum, and the vegetative and fruiting parts of the potato contain the toxin
Etymology
The English word "potato" comes from Spanish patata (the name used in Spain). The
The name "spud" for a potato comes from the digging of soil (or a hole) prior to the planting of potatoes. The word has an unknown origin and was originally (c. 1440) used as a term for a short knife or dagger, probably related to the Latin spad-, a word root meaning "sword"; compare Spanish espada, English "spade", and "spadroon". It subsequently transferred over to a variety of digging tools. Around 1845, the name transferred to the tuber itself, the first record of this usage being in New Zealand English.[15] The origin of the word spud has erroneously been attributed to an 18th-century activist group dedicated to keeping the potato out of Britain, calling itself the Society for the Prevention of Unwholesome Diet (SPUD), for whose existence there is no evidence. Mario Pei's 1949 The Story of Language was responsible for the word's false etymology; he wrote "the potato, for its part, was in disrepute some centuries ago. Some Englishmen who did not fancy potatoes formed a Society for the Prevention of Unwholesome Diet. The initials of the main words in this title gave rise to spud." Like many other claimed pre-20th century acronymic origins, this is false.[16][12]
At least six languages—Afrikaans, Dutch, French, (West) Frisian, Hebrew, Persian[17] and some variants of German—are known to use a term for "potato" that translates roughly (or literally) into English as "earth apple" or "ground apple".[18][19]
Plant description
Potato plants are herbaceous perennials that grow about 60 centimetres (24 inches) high, depending on variety, with the leaves dying back after flowering, fruiting and tuber formation. The alternately arranged leaves have a petiole with six to eight symetrical leaflets and one top, unpaired leaflet, which is 10 cm (3.9 in) to 30 cm (12 in) long and 5 cm (2.0 in) to 15 cm (5.9 in) wide. They present hairs or trichomes on their surface, to varying degrees depending on the cultivar.
Potato plants bear white, pink, red, blue, or purple flowers with yellow stamens. Potatoes are mostly cross-pollinated by insects such as bumblebees, which carry pollen from other potato plants, though a substantial amount of self-fertilizing occurs as well.
The plant develops tubers as a nutrient storage organ. Traditionally, it was thought that the tubers are roots because they are developed underground. In fact, they are stems that form from thickened
After flowering, potato plants produce small green fruits that resemble green cherry tomatoes, each containing about 300 very small seeds.[22] Like all parts of the plant except the tubers, the fruit contain the toxic
Breeding
Potatoes, both S. tuberosum and most of its wild relatives, are
Biosynthesis of starch
Sucrose is a product of photosynthesis.
Taxonomic synonyms
Solanum tuberosum has 438 Synonyms.[29]
Synonyms
|
---|
|
Cultivation
History
Potato production – 2021 | |
---|---|
Country | Production (millions of tonnes) |
China | 94.3 |
India | 54.2 |
Ukraine | 21.4 |
United States | 18.6 |
Russia | 18.3 |
World | 376 |
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[31]
|
The potato was first domesticated in the region of modern-day southern Peru and northwestern Bolivia[6] by pre-Columbian farmers, around Lake Titicaca.[7] It has since spread around the world and become a staple crop in many countries.
The earliest archaeologically verified potato tuber remains have been found at the coastal site of
Following the
Modern cultivation
There are about 5,000 potato varieties worldwide, 3,000 of which are found in the Andes alone—mainly in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, and Colombia. Over 100 cultivars might be found in a single valley, and a dozen or more might be maintained by a single agricultural household.[39] The varieties belong to eight or nine species, depending on the taxonomic school. Apart from the 5,000 cultivated varieties, there are about 200 wild species and subspecies, many of which can be cross-bred with cultivated varieties. Cross-breeding has been done repeatedly to transfer resistances to certain pests and diseases from the gene pool of wild species to the gene pool of cultivated potato species.[citation needed]
The major species grown worldwide is S. tuberosum (a
The
Most modern potatoes grown in North America arrived through European settlement and not independently from the South American sources, although at least one wild potato species,
Little of the diversity found in Solanum ancestral and wild relative is found outside of the original South American range.[46] This makes these South American species highly valuable in breeding.[46]
Varieties
There are close to 4,000 varieties of potatoes, each of which has specific agricultural or culinary attributes.[47] Around 80 varieties are commercially available in the UK.[48] In general, varieties are categorized into a few main groups based on common characteristics, such as russet potatoes (rough brown skin), red potatoes, white potatoes, yellow potatoes (also called Yukon potatoes) and purple potatoes.
For culinary purposes, varieties are often differentiated by their waxiness: floury or mealy baking potatoes have more starch (20–22%) than waxy boiling potatoes (16–18%). The distinction may also arise from variation in the comparative ratio of two different potato starch compounds: amylose and amylopectin. Amylose, a long-chain molecule, diffuses from the starch granule when cooked in water, and lends itself to dishes where the potato is mashed. Varieties that contain a slightly higher amylopectin content, which is a highly branched molecule, help the potato retain its shape after being boiled in water.[49] Potatoes that are good for making potato chips or potato crisps are sometimes called "chipping potatoes", which means they meet the basic requirements of similar varietal characteristics, being firm, fairly clean, and fairly well-shaped.[50]
Immature potatoes may be sold fresh from the field as "creamer" or "new" potatoes and are particularly valued for their taste. They are typically small in size and tender, with a loose skin, and flesh containing a lower level of starch than other potatoes. In the United States they are generally either a Yukon Gold potato or a red potato, called gold creamers or red creamers respectively.[51][52] In the UK, the Jersey Royal is a famous type of new potato.[53] They are distinct from "baby", "salad" or "fingerling" potatoes, which are small and tend to have waxy flesh, but are grown to maturity and can be stored for months before being sold.
The
Pigmentation
Dozens of potato
Genetically engineered potatoes
Genetic research has produced several
Potato starch contains two types of glucan, amylose and amylopectin, the latter of which is most industrially useful. Waxy potato varieties produce waxy potato starch, which is almost entirely amylopectin, with little or no amylose. BASF developed the 'Amflora' potato, which was modified to express antisense RNA to inactivate the gene for granule bound starch synthase, an enzyme which catalyzes the formation of amylose.[60] 'Amflora' potatoes therefore produce starch consisting almost entirely of amylopectin, and are thus more useful for the starch industry. In 2010, the European Commission cleared the way for 'Amflora' to be grown in the European Union for industrial purposes only—not for food. Nevertheless, under EU rules, individual countries have the right to decide whether they will allow this potato to be grown on their territory. Commercial planting of 'Amflora' was expected in the Czech Republic and Germany in the spring of 2010, and Sweden and the Netherlands in subsequent years.[61] Another GM potato variety developed by BASF is 'Fortuna' which was made resistant to late blight by adding two resistance genes, blb1 and blb2, which originate from the Mexican wild potato S. bulbocastanum.[62][63][clarification needed] In October 2011 BASF requested cultivation and marketing approval as a feed and food from the EFSA. In 2012, GMO development in Europe was stopped by BASF.[64][65] In November 2014, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) approved a genetically modified potato developed by Simplot, which contains genetic modifications that prevent bruising and produce less acrylamide when fried than conventional potatoes; the modifications do not cause new proteins to be made, but rather prevent proteins from being made via RNA interference.[66]
Genetically modified varieties have met public resistance in the U.S. and in the European Union.[67][68]
Production
In 2021, world production of potatoes was 376 million tonnes (370,000,000 long tons; 414,000,000 short tons), led by China with 25% of the total (table). Other major producers were India and Ukraine.
Growth
Seed potatoes
Potatoes are generally grown from "seed potatoes", tubers specifically grown to be free from disease and to provide consistent and healthy plants. To be disease free, the areas where seed potatoes are grown are selected with care. In the US, this restricts production of seed potatoes to only 15 states out of all 50 states where potatoes are grown.[69] These locations are selected for their cold, hard winters that kill pests and summers with long sunshine hours for optimum growth. In the UK, most seed potatoes originate in Scotland, in areas where westerly winds reduce aphid attack and the spread of potato virus pathogens.[70]
Specially genetically modified potatoes can also be grown from true seeds.[23] This is rarely used in breeding experimentation.[23]
Phases of growth
Potato growth can be divided into five phases. During the first phase, sprouts emerge from the seed potatoes and root growth begins. During the second,
Challenges
Potatoes are renowned for their ease of cultivation compared to other staple crops; however, maximizing yields and preventing disease and undesirable characteristics requires intensive management.
New tubers may start growing at the surface of the soil. Since exposure to light leads to an undesirable greening of the skins and the development of solanine as a protection from the sun's rays, growers cover surface tubers. Commercial growers cover them by piling additional soil around the base of the plant as it grows (called "hilling" up, or in British English "earthing up"). An alternative method, used by home gardeners and smaller-scale growers, involves covering the growing area with mulches such as straw or plastic sheets.[73]
Correct potato husbandry can be an arduous task in some circumstances. Good ground preparation, harrowing, plowing, and rolling are always needed, along with a little grace from the weather and a good source of water.[74] Three successive plowings, with associated harrowing and rolling, are desirable before planting. Eliminating all root-weeds is desirable in potato cultivation. In general, the potatoes themselves are grown from the eyes of another potato and not from seed. Home gardeners often plant a piece of potato with two or three eyes in a hill of mounded soil. Commercial growers plant potatoes as a row crop using seed tubers, young plants or microtubers and may mound the entire row. Seed potato crops are rogued in some countries to eliminate diseased plants or those of a different variety from the seed crop.
Potatoes are sensitive to heavy frosts, which damage them in the ground. Even cold weather makes potatoes more susceptible to bruising and possibly later rotting, which can quickly ruin a large stored crop.
Pests and disease
The historically significant
Insects that commonly transmit potato diseases or damage the plants include the
Rpi-blb1 is a
Harvest
At harvest time, gardeners usually dig up potatoes with a long-handled, three-prong "grape" (or graip), i.e., a spading fork, or a potato hook, which is similar to the graip but with tines at a 90° angle to the handle. In larger plots, the plow is the fastest implement for unearthing potatoes. Commercial harvesting is typically done with large potato harvesters, which scoop up the plant and surrounding earth. This is transported up an apron chain consisting of steel links several feet wide, which separates some of the dirt. The chain deposits into an area where further separation occurs. Different designs use different systems at this point. The most complex designs use vine choppers and shakers, along with a blower system to separate the potatoes from the plant. The result is then usually run past workers who continue to sort out plant material, stones, and rotten potatoes before the potatoes are continuously delivered to a wagon or truck. Further inspection and separation occurs when the potatoes are unloaded from the field vehicles and put into storage.
Potatoes are usually cured after harvest to improve skin-set. Skin-set is the process by which the skin of the potato becomes resistant to skinning damage. Potato tubers may be susceptible to skinning at harvest and suffer skinning damage during harvest and handling operations. Curing allows the skin to fully set and any wounds to heal. Wound-healing prevents infection and water-loss from the tubers during storage. Curing is normally done at relatively warm temperatures (10 to 16 °C or 50 to 60 °F) with high humidity and good gas-exchange if at all possible.[80]
Storage
Storage facilities need to be carefully designed to keep the potatoes alive and slow the natural process of sprouting which involves the breakdown of starch. It is crucial that the storage area be dark, ventilated well, and, for long-term storage, maintained at temperatures near 4 °C (39 °F). For short-term storage, temperatures of about 7 to 10 °C (45 to 50 °F) are preferred.[81]
Temperatures below 4 °C (39 °F) convert the starch in potatoes into sugar, which alters their taste and cooking qualities and leads to higher acrylamide levels in the cooked product, especially in deep-fried dishes. The discovery of acrylamides in starchy foods in 2002 has led to international health concerns.[citation needed] It is not likely that the acrylamides in burnt or well-cooked food causes cancer in humans.[82] Chemicals are used to suppress sprouting of tubers during storage.
Under optimum conditions in commercial warehouses, potatoes can be stored for up to 10–12 months.
Yield
The world dedicated 18.6 million hectares (46 million acres) to potato cultivation in 2010; the world average yield was 17.4 tonnes per hectare (7.8 short tons per acre). The United States was the most productive country, with a nationwide average yield of 44.3 tonnes per hectare (19.8 short tons per acre).[85] United Kingdom was a close second.
New Zealand farmers have demonstrated some of the best commercial yields in the world, ranging between 60 and 80 tonnes per hectare, some reporting yields of 88 tonnes of potatoes per hectare.[86][87][88]
There is a big gap among various countries between high and low yields, even with the same variety of potato. Average potato yields in developed economies ranges between 38 and 44 metric tons per hectare (15 and 18 long ton/acre; 17 and 20 short ton/acre). China and India accounted for over a third of world's production in 2010, and had yields of 14.7 and 19.9 metric tons per hectare (5.9 and 7.9 long ton/acre; 6.6 and 8.9 short ton/acre) respectively.[85] The yield gap between farms in developing economies and developed economies represents an opportunity loss of over 400 million metric tons (440 million short tons; 390 million long tons) of potato, or an amount greater than 2010 world potato production. Potato crop yields are determined by factors such as the crop breed, seed age and quality, crop management practices and the plant environment. Improvements in one or more of these yield determinants, and a closure of the yield gap, can be a major boost to food supply and farmer incomes in the developing world.[89][90] The
Climate change
As with the other plants, potato plants and crop yields are predicted to benefit from the
Potatoes also grow best under temperate conditions.[100] Tuber growth and yield can be severely reduced by temperature fluctuations outside 5–30 °C (41–86 °F).[98] Temperatures above 30 °C (86 °F) can have a range of negative effects on potato, from physiological damage such as brown spots on tubers, to slower growth, premature sprouting and lower starch content.[101] These effects can reduce crop yield and the number and weight of tubers. As a result, areas where current temperatures are near the limits of potatoes' temperature range (e.g. much of sub-Saharan Africa)[92] will likely suffer large reductions in potato crop yields in the future.[100] On the other hand, low temperatures reduce potato growth and present risk of frost damage.[92] At high altitudes and in high latitude countries such as Canada and Russia, potato growth is currently limited or impossible due to risks of frost damage, and rising temperatures will likely extend potentially suitable land and/or growing season.[98]
Changes in pests and diseases for potato crops
Climate change is predicted to affect many potato pests and diseases. These include:
- Insect pests such as the potato tuber moth and Colorado potato beetle, which are predicted to spread into areas currently too cold for them.[92]
- Aphids which act as vectors for many potato viruses and will also be able to spread under increased temperatures.[102]
- Several pathogens causing potato blackleg disease (e.g. Dickeya) can grow and reproduce faster at higher temperatures and so will likely become more of a problem.[103]
- Bacterial infections such as Ralstonia solanacearum are predicted to benefit from higher temperatures and be able to spread more easily through flash flooding.[92]
Adaptation strategies
Shifting potato production from areas where yields will decline due to hotter temperatures and decreased water availability to places which will become suitable can help to mitigate much of the projected decline in yield: however, this can also trigger competition for land between potato crops and other crops or other land uses.),[100] mostly due to changes in water and temperature regimes. At the same time potato production is predicted to become possible in high altitude and latitude areas where it would previously have been limited by frost damage. These changes in crop yields are predicted to cause shifts in the areas in which potato crops can be viably produced.[100]
The other approach is through the development of varieties or cultivars which would be more adapted to altered conditions. This can be done through 'traditional'
For instance, developing cultivars with greater heat stress tolerance would be critical for maintaining yields in countries with potato production areas near current cultivars' maximum temperature limits (e.g. Sub-Saharan Africa, India).[105] Superior drought resistance can be achieved through improved water use efficiency (amount of food produced per amount of water used) or the ability to recover from short drought periods and still produce acceptable yields. Further, selecting for deeper root systems may reduce the need for irrigation.[106] Finally, potatoes that grow faster could help adjust to shorter growing seasons in some areas, and also reduce the number of life cycles pests such as potato tuber moth can complete in a single growing season.[98]
Content
Nutrition
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
---|---|
Energy | 364 kJ (87 kcal) |
20.1 g | |
Sugars | 0.9 g |
Dietary fiber | 1.8 g |
0.1 g | |
1.9 g | |
Niacin (B3) | 9% 1.44 mg |
Pantothenic acid (B5) | 10% 0.52 mg |
Vitamin B6 | 23% 0.3 mg |
Folate (B9) | 3% 10 μg |
Vitamin C | 16% 13 mg |
Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
Calcium | 1% 5 mg |
Iron | 2% 0.31 mg |
Magnesium | 6% 22 mg |
Manganese | 7% 0.14 mg |
Phosphorus | 6% 44 mg |
Potassium | 13% 379 mg |
Sodium | 0% 4 mg |
Zinc | 3% 0.3 mg |
Other constituents | Quantity |
Water | 77 g |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults.[107] |
In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), a boiled potato with skin supplies 87 calories and is 77% water, 20% carbohydrates (including 2% dietary fiber in the skin and flesh), 2% protein, and contains negligible fat (table). The protein content is comparable to other starchy vegetable staples, as well as grains.[2]
Boiled potatoes are a rich source (20% or more of the
The potato is rarely eaten raw because raw potato starch is poorly digested by humans.
In the UK, potatoes are not considered by the National Health Service as counting or contributing towards the recommended daily five portions of fruit and vegetables, the 5-A-Day program.[110]
Taste and smell
There are about 140 chemical compounds found in potato tubers which are responsible for their specific taste and smell. The most important are
Toxicity
Raw potatoes contain toxic compounds known as glycoalkaloids, of which the most prevalent are solanine and chaconine. Solanine is found in other plants in the same family, Solanaceae, which includes such plants as deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna), henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) and tobacco (Nicotiana spp.), as well as the food plants eggplant and tomato. These compounds, which protect the potato plant from its predators, are generally concentrated in its leaves, flowers, sprouts, and fruits (in contrast to the tubers).[112] In a summary of several studies, the glycoalkaloid content was in order from highest to lowest: flowers, sprouts, leaves, tuber skin, roots, berries, peel [skin plus outer cortex of tuber flesh], stems, and tuber flesh).[10]
Exposure to light, physical damage, and age increase glycoalkaloid content within the tuber.
Different potato varieties contain different levels of glycoalkaloids. The '
Uses
Culinary
This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: Bad heading hierarchy: continental food listings should be h4-level subheadings under Culinary. (December 2023) |
Potatoes are prepared in many ways: skin-on or peeled, whole or cut up, with seasonings or without. The only requirement involves cooking to swell the starch granules. Most potato dishes are served hot but some are first cooked, then served cold, notably
Latin America
Peruvian cuisine naturally contains the potato as a primary ingredient in many dishes, as around 3,000 varieties of this tuber are grown there.[118] Some of the more notable dishes include boiled potato as a base for several dishes or with
Europe
In the UK, potatoes form part of the traditional staple, fish and chips. Roast potatoes are commonly served as part of a Sunday roast dinner and mashed potatoes form a major component of several other traditional dishes, such as shepherd's pie, bubble and squeak, and bangers and mash. New potatoes may be cooked with mint and are often served with butter.[120]
The tattie scone is a popular Scottish dish containing potatoes. Colcannon is a traditional Irish food made with mashed potato, shredded kale or cabbage, and onion; champ is a similar dish. Boxty pancakes are eaten throughout Ireland, although associated especially with the North, and in Irish diaspora communities; they are traditionally made with grated potatoes, soaked to loosen the starch and mixed with flour, buttermilk and baking powder. A variant eaten and sold in Lancashire, especially Liverpool, is made with cooked and mashed potatoes.
In the UK,
.Powdered cooked potato has been sold in the UK since the 1960s as Smash and is used as a food for camping[121] and domestically.
Halušky are the national dish of many Slavic nations. Halušky dumplings are made from a batter consisting of flour and grated potatoes. Bryndzové halušky are associated to Slovak cuisine in particular.
In Germany,
Cepelinai is the national dish of Lithuania. They are a type of dumpling made from grated raw potatoes boiled in water and usually stuffed with minced meat, although sometimes dry cottage cheese (curd) or mushrooms are used instead.[123]
In Western Europe, especially in Belgium, sliced potatoes are fried to create frieten, the original
In France, the most notable potato dish is the
In the north of Italy, in particular, in the
Potato pancakes are popular all over Central Europe, and are also known in Scandinavia, and in Jewish cuisine.
A traditional
North America
This section needs additional citations for verification. (September 2023) |
In the US, potatoes have become one of the most widely consumed crops and thus have a variety of preparation methods and condiments.
A traditional
Potato grading for Idaho potatoes is performed in which No. 1 potatoes are the highest quality and No. 2 are rated as lower in quality due to their appearance (e.g. blemishes or bruises, pointy ends).[125] Potato density assessment can be performed by floating them in brines.[126] High-density potatoes are desirable in the production of dehydrated mashed potatoes, potato crisps and french fries.[126]
-
French fries served with a hamburger
-
Poutine, a Canadian dish of fried potatoes, cheese curds, and gravy
South Asia
In South Asia, the potato is a very popular traditional staple. In India, the most popular potato dishes are aloo ki sabzi, batata vada, and samosa, which is spicy mashed potato mixed with a small amount of vegetable stuffed in conical dough, and deep-fried. Potatoes are also a major ingredient as fast-food items, such as aloo chaat, where they are deep-fried and served with chutney. In Northern India, alu dum and alu paratha are a favourite part of the diet; the first is a spicy curry of boiled potato, the second is a type of stuffed chapati.
A dish called masala dosa from South India is notable all over India. It is a thin pancake of rice and pulse batter rolled over spicy smashed potato and eaten with sambhar and chutney. Poori in south India, in particular in Tamil Nadu, is almost always taken with smashed potato masal. Other favourite dishes are alu tikki and pakoda items.
Vada pav is a popular vegetarian fast-food dish in Mumbai and other regions in Maharashtra in India.
Aloo posto (a curry with potatoes and poppy seeds) is popular in East India, especially Bengal. Although potatoes are not native to India, it has become a vital part of food all over the country especially North Indian food preparations. In Tamil Nadu this tuber acquired a name based on its appearance, 'urulai-k-kizhangu' (உருளைக் கிழங்கு), meaning cylindrical tuber.
Aloo gosht, potato and meat curry, is one of the popular dishes in South Asia, especially in Pakistan.
East Asia
In East Asia, particularly Southeast Asia, rice is by far the predominant starch crop, with potatoes a secondary crop, especially in China and Japan. However, it is used in northern China where rice is not easily grown, with a popular dish being 青椒土豆丝 (qīng jiāo tǔ dòu sī), made with green pepper, vinegar and thin slices of potato. In the winter, roadside sellers in northern China will also sell roasted potatoes. It is also occasionally seen in Korean and Thai cuisines.[127]
Other uses
Potatoes are also used for purposes other than eating by humans, for example:
- Potatoes are used to brew alcoholic beverages such as vodka, poitín, or akvavit.
- They are also used as fodder for livestock. Livestock-grade potatoes, considered too small or blemished to sell or market for human use but suitable for fodder use, have been called chats in some dialects. They may be stored in bins until use; they are sometimes ensiled.[128] Some farmers prefer to steam them rather than feed them raw and are equipped to do so efficiently.
- Potato starch is used in the food industry as a thickener and binder for soups and sauces, in the textile industry as an adhesive, and for the manufacturing of papers and boards.[129][130]
- Potatoes are commonly used in plant research. The consistent parenchyma tissue, the clonal nature of the plant and the low metabolic activity make it an ideal model tissue for experiments on wound-response studies and electron transport.
- Potatoes have been delivered with personalized messages as a novelty. Potato delivery services include Potato Parcel and Mail A Spud.[131]
Cultural significance
In mythology
According to Iroquois mythology, the first potatoes grew out of Earth Woman's feet after she died giving birth to her twin sons, Sapling and Flint.[132]
In art
The potato has been an essential crop in the Andes since the
During the late 19th century, numerous images of potato harvesting appeared in European art, including the works of Willem Witsen and Anton Mauve.[134]
Jean-François Millet's The Potato Harvest depicts peasants working in the plains between Barbizon and Chailly. It presents a theme representative of the peasants' struggle for survival. Millet's technique for this work incorporated paste-like pigments thickly applied over a coarsely textured canvas.
-
Van Gogh, 1885 (Van Gogh Museum)
-
Girl peeling potatoes by Albert Anker, 1886, oil on canvas
-
The potato harvest by Jules Bastien-Lepage, 1877, National Gallery of Victoria
In popular culture
Invented in 1949, and marketed and sold commercially by Hasbro in 1952, Mr. Potato Head is an American toy that consists of a plastic potato and attachable plastic parts, such as ears and eyes, to make a face. It was the first toy ever advertised on television.[136]
In June 1992 at the Muñoz Rivera Elementary School spelling bee in Trenton, New Jersey, U.S. Vice President Dan Quayle was handed a flash card that incorrectly spelled "potato" as "potatoe" and then prompted a 12-year-old student to change his correct spelling.[137][138][139] This incident was the subject of widespread ridicule.
See also
- Climate change and potatoes
- Irish potato candy
- List of potato cultivars
- List of potato dishes
- List of potato museums
- Loy (spade), a form of early spade used in Ireland for the cultivation of potatoes
- New World crops
- Potato battery
- International Year of the Potato
References
Citations
- ^ "Solanum tuberosum L." Plants of the World Online. Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2017. Retrieved 7 September 2020.
- ^ .
- ^ "Potato – Definition". Merriam-Webster. 21 June 2023.
- PMID 21669641.
- University of Wisconsin-Madison. 3 October 2005. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
- ^ PMID 16203994.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-309-04264-2.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-85109-421-9.
- S2CID 41052277.
- ^ .
- ^ "patata". Diccionario Usual (in Spanish). Royal Spanish Academy. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
- ^ a b Ley, Willy (February 1968). "The Devil's Apples". For Your Information. Galaxy Science Fiction. pp. 118–25 – via Internet Archive.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-861186-8.
- ISBN 978-0-449-90496-1.
- ^ "spud (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 13 May 2018.
- ISBN 0-19-517284-1.
- ^ "jordäpple | SAOB | svenska.se" (in Swedish). Retrieved 28 June 2023.
- ^ Hooshmand, Dana (12 October 2020). ""Earth Apple": The 5 Languages that Use This for "Potato"". discoverdiscomfort.com. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
- ^ Laws, Christopher (9 February 2015). "A Cultural History of the Potato as Earth Apple". Culturedarm. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-471-57339-5.
- International Journal of Developmental Biology (45): S37–S38. Archived from the original(PDF) on 6 February 2009. Retrieved 8 January 2009.
- ISBN 0-89118-034-6.
- ^ PMID 34230471.
- S2CID 40678039.
- PMID 34230469.
- S2CID 39719359.
- S2CID 260349512.
- ^ S2CID 232482246.
- ^ "Solanum tuberosum L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science". Plants of the World Online. Retrieved 3 January 2024.
- S2CID 240163091. Retrieved 13 December 2021.
- ^ "Potato production in 2021 Region/World/Production Quantity/Crops from pick lists". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division. 2023. Retrieved 18 April 2023.
- ^ Martins-Farias 1976; Moseley 1975
- ISBN 978-1-317-59829-9.
- ^ hdl:10925/320. Retrieved 6 December 2009.
- ^ "Using DNA, scientists hunt for the roots of the modern potato". EurekAlert!. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
- ^ ISBN 9780367449872
- S2CID 17631317. Archived from the original(PDF) on 5 July 2011. Retrieved 7 July 2012.
- ^ PMID 30731850.
- ^ Theisen, K (1 January 2007). "History and overview". World Potato Atlas: Peru. International Potato Center. Archived from the original on 14 January 2008. Retrieved 10 September 2008.
- University of Wisconsin. Archived from the original(PDF) on 26 March 2009. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
- ^ "Cultivated Potato Genebank". International Potato Center. Retrieved 15 June 2021.
- .
- ^ Story is reprinted (with editorial adaptations by ScienceDaily staff) from materials provided by University of Wisconsin–Madison (4 February 2008). "Using DNA, Scientists Hunt For The Roots Of The Modern Potato". ScienceDaily (with information from a report originally appearing in the American Journal of Botany). Retrieved 27 August 2011.
- PMID 12872003.
- PMID 35576021.
- ^ S2CID 30648732.
- ^ John Roach (10 June 2002). "Saving the Potato in its Andean Birthplace". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 12 June 2002. Retrieved 11 September 2009.
- ^ Potato Council. "Potato Varieties". Agriculture & Horticulture Development Board. Archived from the original on 8 September 2009. Retrieved 13 September 2009.
- Cooks Illustrated. Archived from the original(PDF) on 17 December 2008. Retrieved 8 December 2008.
- ^ Agricultural Marketing Service. "Potatoes for Chipping Grades and Standards". Retrieved 27 August 2018.
- ^ "Creamer Potato". recipetips.com. Retrieved 18 July 2008.
- ^ "What is a new potato? New guidelines issued". BBC News. 12 August 2013. Retrieved 13 June 2021.
- ^ "A look back at a Royal history". 25 January 2010. Retrieved 13 June 2021.
- ^ "Europotato.org". Europotato.org. Archived from the original on 28 November 2009. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
- ^ "So many varieties, so many choices". Wisconsin Potato and Vegetable Growers Association. 2017.
- PMID 23589519.
- S2CID 34297429.
- PMID 21520708.
- ^ "Genetically Engineered Organisms Public Issues Education Project/Am I eating GE potatoes?". Cornell University. Retrieved 16 December 2008.
- ^ "GMO compass database". Archived from the original on 9 October 2014. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
- ^ "GM potatoes: BASF at work". 31 May 2010. Archived from the original on 31 May 2010.
- ^ "Research in Germany: Business BASF applies for approval for another biotech potato". 2 June 2013. Archived from the original on 2 June 2013.
- ^ Burger, Ludwig (10 November 2015). "BASF applies for EU approval for Fortuna GM potato | Reuters". Reuters. Archived from the original on 10 November 2015.
- ^ BASF stops GM crop development in Europe, Deutsche Welle, 17 January 2012
- ^ Kanter, James (16 January 2012). "BASF to Stop Selling Genetically Modified Products in Europe". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 23 January 2024. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
- ^ Pollack, Andrew (7 November 2014). "U.S.D.A. Approves Modified Potato. Next Up: French Fry Fans". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 12 November 2014.
- ^ "Consumer acceptance of genetically modified potatoes" (PDF). American Journal of Potato Research. 2002. cited through Bnet. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 November 2012. Retrieved 19 February 2012.
- ^ Rosenthal, Elisabeth (24 July 2007). "A genetically modified potato, not for eating, is stirring some opposition in Europe". The New York Times. Retrieved 15 November 2008.
- ^ United States Potato Board. "Seed Potatoes". Archived from the original on 25 August 2015. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
- ^ "Seed & Ware Potatoes". www.sasa.gov.uk. Scottish Agricultural Science Agency; Science & Advice for Scottish Agriculture. Archived from the original on 6 June 2018. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
- ^ "Potatoes Home Garden". sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu. UF/IFAS Extension. Retrieved 14 August 2019.
- ISSN 0003-4746.
- Extension Service. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
- ^ Brulard, Maude (29 April 2015). "Dutch saltwater potatoes offer hope for world's hungry". M.phys.org. Retrieved 11 October 2018.
- ^ "NJF seminar No. 388 Integrated Control of Potato Late Blight in the Nordic and Baltic Countries. Copenhagen, Denmark, 29 November −1 December 2006" (PDF). Nordic Association of Agricultural Scientists. Retrieved 14 November 2008.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Organic Management of Late Blight of Potato and Tomato (Phytophthora infestans)". Michigan State University. Archived from the original on 2 July 2015. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
- ^ Alyokhin, A. (2009). "Colorado potato beetle management on potatoes: current challenges and future prospects" (PDF). In Tennant, P.; Benkeblia, N. (eds.). Potato II. Fruit, Vegetable and Cereal Science and Biotechnology 3 (Special Issue 1). pp. 10–19.
- ^ "Metrics Used in EWG's Shopper's Guide to Pesticides Compiled from USDA and FDA Data" (PDF). Environmental Working Group. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 1 September 2010.
- ^ a b c
Oh, Soohyun; Choi, Doil (2022). "Receptor-mediated nonhost resistance in plants". Review. Essays in Biochemistry. 66 (5). S2CID 247999992.
- ^ Kleinkopf G.E. and N. Olsen. 2003. Storage Management, in: Potato Production Systems, J.C. Stark and S.L. Love (eds), University of Idaho Agricultural Communications, 363–81.
- ^ a b c Potato storage, value Preservation: Kohli, Pawanexh (2009). "Potato storage and value Preservation: The Basics" (PDF). CrossTree techno-visors. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 12 July 2009.
- ^ "Can eating burnt foods cause cancer?". Cancer Research UK. 15 October 2021.
- ^ a b Epp, Melanie (12 April 2021). "The Worry with CIPC". EuropeanSeed. Retrieved 12 June 2021.
- ^ Cunnington, Adrian (May 2019). "Maleic hydrazide as a potato sprout suppressant" (PDF). AHDB Potatoes. Retrieved 8 June 2021.[permanent dead link]
- ^ a b "FAOSTAT: Production-Crops, 2010 data". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2011. Archived from the original on 14 January 2013.
- ^ Sarah Sinton (2011). "There's yet more gold in them thar "hills"!". Grower Magazine, The Government of New Zealand.
- ^ "Phosphate and potatoes". Ballance. 2009. Archived from the original on 1 March 2012. Retrieved 19 February 2012.
- ^ "International Year of the Potato: 2008, Asia and Oceania". Potato World. 2008. Archived from the original on 22 June 2012. Retrieved 19 February 2012.
- ^ Workshop to Commemorate the International Year of the Potato. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2008.
- S2CID 4346486.
- ISBN 978-0-8493-8981-8.
- ^ S2CID 22794078.
- PMID 28811375.
- ^ "Potato". CIP. Retrieved 7 November 2012.
- ISSN 0032-0862.
- ^ a b "Climate change and potatoes: The risks, impacts and opportunities for UK potato production" (PDF). Cranfield Water Science Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 September 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2012.
- ^ "Crop Water Information: Potato". FAO Water Development and Management Unit. Retrieved 7 November 2012.
- ^ a b c d "Climate change - can potato stand the heat?". WRENmedia. Archived from the original on 31 May 2019. Retrieved 7 November 2012.
- S2CID 53488790.
- ^ S2CID 3355406.
- ^ S2CID 602971.
- ^ Pandey SK. "Potato Research Priorities in Asia and the Pacific Region". FAO. Retrieved 7 November 2012.
- ^ Czajkowski R. "Why is Dickeya spp. (syn. Erwinia chrysanthemi) taking over? The ecology of a blackleg pathogen" (PDF). Retrieved 7 November 2012.
- ^ Forbes GA. "Implications for a warmer, wetter world on the late blight pathogen: How CIP efforts can reduce risk for low-input potato farmers" (PDF). CIP. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 January 2011. Retrieved 7 November 2012.
- ^ "Information highlights from World Potato Congress, Kunming, China, April 2004" (PDF). World Potato Congress. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 April 2013. Retrieved 7 November 2012.
- ^ "Potato and water resources". FAO. Archived from the original on 20 June 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2012.
- ^ United States Department of Agriculture; Agricultural Research Service (2019). "FoodData Central". Retrieved 18 March 2024.
- .
- PMID 15800557.
- ^ "5 A Day: what counts?". nhs.uk. 23 February 2022. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
- ISBN 0-8342-1307-9. S. 362.
- ^ "Tomato-like Fruit on Potato Plants". Iowa State University. Archived from the original on 16 July 2004. Retrieved 8 January 2009.
- Food Science Australia. 2005. Archived from the originalon 25 November 2011. Retrieved 15 November 2008.
- ^ Koerth-Baker, Marggie (25 March 2013). "The case of the poison potato". boingboing.net. Archived from the original on 8 November 2015. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
- PMID 12720378.
- ISBN 978-3-540-21286-7.
- ^ b:Cookbook:Potato
- ^ Hayes, Monte (24 June 2007). "Peru Celebrates Potato Diversity". The Washington Post. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
- ISBN 0-8165-1023-7, pp. 82–84
- ^ "Pembrokeshire Early Potato gets protected European status". BBC News. 4 December 2013. Retrieved 11 October 2018.
- ^ "Instant Potato, Chive and Bacon "Mugga Soup"". 16 February 2019. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
- ISBN 978-0-89480-845-6.
- ^ "D.E.L.A.C." delac.eu. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 25 January 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-09-976220-1.
- ^ "Frequently Asked Questions". Idaho Potato Commission. Retrieved 6 December 2013.
- ^ ISBN 81-203-2086-7.
- ISBN 978-0-85561-688-5.
- ^ Halliday, Les; et al. (2015), "Ensiling Potatoes" (PDF), Prince Edward Island Agriculture and Fisheries, retrieved 27 January 2018.
- ISBN 978-0-306-45583-4.
- ISBN 978-1-56022-272-9.
- ^ Atkins, Amy (16 March 2016). "Potato Parcel". Boise Weekly. Boise Weekly. Archived from the original on 8 August 2016. Retrieved 11 August 2016.
- ^ Day, Ashley (20 November 2023). "3 Sisters to Invite to Thanksgiving". Food & Wine.
- ^ Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. The Spirit of Ancient Peru: Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York:Thames and Hudson, 1997.
- ISBN 978-0-7190-5628-4.
- ^ van Tilborgh, Louis (2009). "The Potato Eaters by Vincent van Gogh". The Vincent van Gogh Gallery. Retrieved 11 September 2009.
- ^ "Mr Potato Head". Museum of Childhood. V&A Museum of Childhood. Retrieved 11 September 2009.
- ^ "Dan Quayle's 'Potatoe' Incident – 1992". The Washington Post.
- ^ Mickle, Paul. "1992: Gaffe with an 'e' at the end". Capitalcentury.com. Archived from the original on 15 July 2006. Retrieved 1 July 2006.
- ^ Fass, Mark (29 August 2004). "How Do You Spell Regret? One Man's Take on It". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 23 March 2009. Retrieved 20 March 2009.
General and cited sources
- Economist. "Llamas and mash", The Economist 28 February 2008 online
- Economist. "The potato: Spud we like", (leader) The Economist 28 February 2008 online
- Boomgaard, Peter (2003). "In the Shadow of Rice: Roots and Tubers in Indonesian History, 1500–1950". JSTOR 3744936.
- Hawkes, J.G. (1990). The Potato: Evolution, Biodiversity & Genetic Resources, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC
- Lang, James (1975). Notes of a Potato Watcher. Texas A&M University Agriculture series. ISBN 978-1-58544-138-9.
- Langer, William L (1975). "American Foods and Europe's Population Growth 1750–1850". JSTOR 3786266.
- McNeill, William H. "How the Potato Changed the World's History." Social Research (1999) 66#1 pp. 67–83. Ebsco, by a leading historian
- McNeill William H (1948). "The Introduction of the Potato into Ireland". S2CID 145099646.
- Ó Gráda, Cormac. Black '47 and Beyond: The Great Irish Famine in History, Economy, and Memory. (1999). 272 pp.
- Ó Gráda, Cormac, Richard Paping, and Eric Vanhaute, eds. When the Potato Failed: Causes and Effects of the Last European Subsistence Crisis, 1845–1850. (2007). 342 pp. ISBN 978-2-503-51985-2. 15 essays by scholars looking at Ireland and all of Europe
- Reader, John. Propitious Esculent: The Potato in World History (2008), 315pp a standard scholarly history
- Salaman, Redcliffe N. (1989). The History and Social Influence of the Potato, Cambridge University Press (originally published in 1949; reprinted 1985 with new introduction and corrections by J.G. Hawkes).
- Stevenson, W.R., Loria, R., Franc, G.D., and Weingartner, D.P. (2001) Compendium of Potato Diseases, 2nd ed, Amer. Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN.
- Zuckerman, Larry. The Potato: How the Humble Spud Rescued the Western World. (1998). 304 pp. Douglas & McIntyre. ISBN 0-86547-578-4.
Further reading
- Bohl, William H.; Johnson, Steven B., eds. (2010). Commercial Potato Production in North America: The Potato Association of America Handbook (PDF). Second Revision of American Potato Journal Supplement Volume 57 and USDA Handbook 267. The Potato Association of America. Archived from the original(PDF) on 16 August 2012.
- "'Humble' Potato Emerging as World's Next Food Source". column. Japan. Reuters. 11 May 2008. p. 20.
- Spooner, David M.; McLean, Karen; Ramsay, Gavin; Waugh, Robbie; Bryan, Glenn J. (October 2005). "A single domestication for potato based on multilocus amplified fragment length polymorphism genotyping". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 102 (41). PMID 16203994.
- The World Potato Atlas, released by the International Potato Center in 2006 and regularly updated. Includes current chapters of 15 countries:
- South America: (English and Spanish): Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru
- Africa: Cameroon, Ethiopia, Kenya
- Eurasia: Armenia, Bangladesh, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Tajikistan
- 38 others as brief "archive" chapters
- Further information links at Other Materials
- World Geography of the Potato at UGA.edu, released in 1993.
- Atlas of Wild Potatoes (2002), Systematic and Ecogeographic Studies on Crop Genepools 10, International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), ISBN 9789290435181
- Gauldie, Enid (1981). The Scottish Miller 1700–1900. Pub. John Donald. ISBN 0-85976-067-7.
External links
- Solanum tuberosum (potato, papas): life cycle, tuber anatomy at GeoChemBio. Archived 8 April 2022 at the Wayback Machine.