Standard of living in Israel
Israel's standard of living is significantly higher than all of the other countries in the region and equal to Western European countries, and is comparable to that of other highly developed countries. Israel was ranked 19th out of 189 countries on the 2019 UN Human Development Index, indicating "very high" development. It is considered a high-income country by the World Bank. Israel also has a very high life expectancy at birth.
History
Following Israel's
In 1952, Israel and West Germany signed a
Throughout the 1950s, Israel was heavily reliant on reparations payments from West Germany, and on financial donations from Jews around the world, especially American Jews. Israel used these sources to invest in its infrastructure and in industrial and agricultural development projects, which allowed the country to become economically self-sufficient. Due to this commitment to development in its first two decades of existence, Israel experienced economic growth rates that exceeded 10% annually. Average living standards rose steadily; between 1950 and 1963, the expenditure of an average wage-earner's family rose 97% in real terms.[2] Between 1955 and 1966, per capita consumption in Israel rose by 221% and in 1963, 93% of the population had electricity and 97% had running water.[3]
Israeli historian Tom Segev described the improvement in living conditions during the 1950s due to the rapid development of the country:[4]
The new industrial and agricultural equipment created better conditions for the worker and the farmer. Soon, display windows began showing merchandise long absent; fruits, vegetables, and various food products. People were able to enjoy apples again and spread their bread with butter instead of margarine. Now it was possible to choose from a variety of clothes, shoes, furniture, paper goods, and electrical equipment. The supply did not equal what was available in developed countries, but it was enough to give the impression that the country was finally emerging from austerity... New power stations arrived, and there were fewer electrical outages. People could now have their own telephone lines and travel on railroad cars offering almost European comfort and luxury.
From 1950 to 1976, Israel managed to raise its standard of living threefold. For instance, consumption of animal protein per capita rose from 32.2 to 49.4 grams (1.14 to 1.74 oz) per day, while during that same period, the percentage of families owning an electric refrigerator increased from 2.4% to 99.0%. Family ownership of other durables also showed increases. From 1970 to 1976, the percentage of families owning a gas/electric range and oven rose from 5% to 51.8%, and a television set from 49.7% to 89.5%. From 1957 to 1976, the percentage of families owning an electric washing machine rose from 6.9% to 74.6%, and from 1955 to 1976, the percentage of families owning a radio rose from 54.7% to 84.2%. The percentage of families owning a car also increased, from 4.1% in 1962 to 31.2% in 1976.[1]
One aspect of daily life in Israel that set it apart from much of the world for many years was the absence of television, and then of color television. Television was only introduced in 1966, in schools as an educational tool,[5] and regular public transmissions began in 1968. Even then, all television broadcasts were in black and white, at a time when American and European stations were switching to full-scale color transmissions. Color transmissions were initially banned due to fears of social inequality, although ordinary citizens found ways around this ban, and were only gradually introduced around 1980.
In the 1970s, Israeli living standards were comparable with those of some
In addition to the 1985 stabilization plan,
In the early 2000s, Israeli living standards were comparable with those of Western Europe.[8] In 2006, Israel was rated as having the 23rd-highest quality of life in the world by the United Nations Human Development Index.[9] In 2010, Israel was ranked 15th in quality of life.[10] In 2011, Bank of Israel Governor Stanley Fischer said that Israel had a standard of living two-thirds as high as that of the United States.[7]
In 2011, social justice protests broke out across the country over the high cost of living. In 2012, a report issued by the Taub Center stated that while living standards in Israel were rising, they were rising more slowly than those of other Western countries.[11]
In late 2013, the Israeli government approved a series of measures to lower the country's high cost of living. A law was passed to break up large conglomerates and end economic concentration, so as to encourage economic competition. A new committee was also formed to remove import barriers and lower prices, making them more comparable to prices abroad.[12][13]
Demographics
According to census, Israel's population is 75.4%
In numbers
Israel was ranked 19th out of 189 nations in the Human Development Index (HDI) 2019 ranking.[15]
The country ranked 4th out of 155 nations in the World Happiness Report .[16]
Israel was ranked 4th best performing economy according to the Economist as of 2022 and 2023.[17][18]
Modern standard of living
Wealth and income distribution
A 2013
A 2014 Credit Suisse report found Israelis to be prosperous by world standards. Defining "wealth" as financial resources (cash, stocks, and bonds) and owned property, adjusted to deduct debt, the report found residents of Israel to be the sixth wealthiest people on average in the Middle East and Asia-Pacific region, trailing only Australia, Singapore, Japan, New Zealand, and Taiwan. The report also found that average Israeli wealth slightly exceeds average European wealth. However, the national wealth was found to be distributed slightly more inequitably than in most industrialized countries, although wealth distribution was found to be on par with some industrialized European countries and more equitable than in the United States, with about 67.3% of national assets held by the richest 10% of the population. This is roughly on par with some European countries, including Sweden, Austria, Norway, and Germany, as well as China, Mexico, and Saudi Arabia, while wealth is distributed more equitably across most other European countries.[20]
According to the
A 2015 OECD report found that the Israeli tax burden was slightly lower than average among OECD countries, with Israelis paying an average of 31.4% of their income in taxes, slightly lower than the OECD average of 34.4%, although this is still significantly higher than the tax burden in the United States, Mexico, and Chile. The report also found Israeli salaries to be lower than the OECD average.[22]
Despite high levels of wealth, a major factor affecting purchasing power is the high cost of living in Israel, which is higher than the OECD average. This is seen as having a significant impact on the middle and working classes.[23] However, the cost of living is on the decline.[24]
In January 2021 Bituah Leumi published a report on poverty and inequality in Israel, which showed that 1,980,309 Israelis lived below the poverty line in 2020 - 23% of Israeli citizens and 31.7% of Israeli children. In the Jewish population, the proportion was 17.7%, and in the ultra-Orthodox sector 49%. In the Arab population it was 35.8%. Unemployment benefits alone rescued 23.6% of families from poverty, compared to 2% in 2019.[25]
Material prosperity
The following table contains statistics on the ownership of durable goods among Israeli households in 2015.[26]
Product | Percentage of household ownership |
Refrigerator | 99.8% |
Deep freezer | 23.2% |
Cooking and baking stove | 35% |
Baking stove | 60.5% |
Cooking stove | 66.4% |
Microwave | 85.6% |
Dishwasher | 39.2% |
Water purifier | 35.9% |
Washing machine | 96.1% |
Clothes dryer | 41.1% |
Air conditioner | 89.1% |
Vacuum cleaner | 61.8% |
Television set | 87.5% (53.6% with more than one) |
DVD system | 33.8% |
Cable or satellite television | 59.2% |
Satellite dish | 16.6% |
Digital convector | 12% |
Computer | 80.3% (34.8% with more than one) |
Internet subscription | 74.3% |
Tablet computer | 40.9% |
Gaming console | 14.7% |
One or more phone lines | 69.2% (3.5% with more than one) |
Two or more phone lines | 3.6% |
One mobile phone or more | 96.9% (74.9% with more than one) |
One car or more | 69.7% (24.4% with more than one) |
Central heating | 3.7% |
Flat heating | 4.3% |
Solar water heater | 82.6% |
Housing
Most Israelis live in apartments. According to the Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics, 33% live in three-room apartments, 28% in four-room apartments, and 13% in five-room apartments. CBS statistics also showed that 5% live in one-room apartments, while only 0.6% of Israelis live in a property with eight rooms or more.[27] The CBS also reports that Israeli households contain .8 persons per room.[28] According to the OECD, the average number of rooms per person is 1.1.[29]
In 2014,
Health
Israel has a system of universal health care run by semi-private non-profit corporations heavily regulated by the government, wherein all citizens are entitled to the same Uniform Benefit Package. All Israeli citizens are required to have membership in one of four Health Maintenance Organizations which are subsidized by taxpayer funds. According to a 2000 study by the World Health Organization, Israel had the 28th best health care system in the world.[33] In 2013, Bloomberg ranked Israel as having the fourth most efficient healthcare system in the world, surpassed only by Hong Kong, Singapore, and Japan.[34]
Israel's medical facilities are recognized worldwide for their high standards of health services, top-quality medical resources and research, modern hospital facilities, and an impressive ratio of physicians and specialists to the population. Israeli doctors make NIS 20,000–24,000 (US$5,000–$6,000) per month.[33]
Israel has one of the highest life expectancies at birth in the world, ranking 8 out of 224 nations (2009), with an average life expectancy of 80.73.
Education
According to a 2014 OECD survey, Israel is the fourth most educated country in the world, with about 46% of adults achieving a tertiary qualification. Only Russia, Canada, and Japan exceed Israel's figures.[37]
Israel's educational expenditures comprise 6.9% of its GDP (2004), placing Israel 25th out of 182 on the CIA World Factbook's country comparison of educational expenditures as a percent of GDP.[citation needed]
23.9% of Israel's adult population (age 25+) has achieved a low attainment level of education, 33.1% has achieved a medium attainment level of education, and 39.7% has achieved a high attainment level of education. Israel's literacy rate is 97.1% (2004 est.)[38][39]
Israeli schools are divided into four tracks: public, state-run schools, state-funded
Many Jewish schools in Israel have highly-developed special education programs for disabled children, libraries, computers, science laboratories, and film editing studios.[40]
Typically, after a student graduates, he or she will be conscripted into the
All nine Israeli public universities and some colleges are heavily subsidized, and pupils pay only a small part of the actual tuition.[citation needed]
Social classes
Wealthy
In 2013, Israel ranked 10th in the world in percentage of millionaires among the population, with 3.8% of households holding assets in excess of $1 million, and eighth in the percentage of households holding assets in excess of $100 million.[42]
Middle class
A Taub Center report from 2014 notes that the Israeli middle class is divided into the lower and upper-middle classes, with a large income gap between them. The lower middle class, comprising about 40% of the population, has a monthly per capita wage range of NIS 1,950 to NIS 5,000. The upper-middle-class, which comprises about 29% of the population, has a monthly per capita wage range of NIS 5,100 to NIS 12,540.[43]
Poverty
Estimates of the Israeli poverty rate vary. Israel's poverty levels are commonly viewed as high in comparison with other developed countries, although it has been argued that poverty rates are significantly lower than officially reported due to the presence of a large
A report issued by the OECD in 2016 ranks Israel as the country with the highest rates of poverty among its members. Approximately 21 percent of Israelis were found to be living under the poverty line – more than in countries such as Mexico, Turkey, and Chile. The OECD average is a poverty rate of 11 percent.[45]
However, it has also been suggested that Israel's true poverty rate is in fact far lower, and the statistics are skewed by significant underreporting of income, as World Bank research shows Israel as having one of the largest underground economies in the developed world. One former Bank of Israel chief noted a significant underreporting of income among Arabs and Haredim, and said that based on surveys of household spending rather than income, Israel's actual core poverty rate is around 12% of households.[44]
During the late 1980s and 1990s, poverty rates in Israel fluctuated (according to one estimate) from 12.8% in 1989 to 18% in 1994, before falling to about 16% in 1997.[46] The report published by the National Insurance Institute (NII) indicates that poverty levels remained relatively stable in 2006–2007. Roughly 20.5% of Israeli families were found to be living below the poverty line in 2008, a slight increase from the previous year's 20%. Moreover, 24.7% of Israel's residents and 35.9% of its children lived in impoverished conditions.[47]
Data for the 2006–2007 NII survey indicates that 420,000 impoverished families resided in Israel (1.5 million people),[48] including some 805,000 children. Poverty indicators for families with a single wage-earner have risen from 22.6% during the last NII survey to 23.9% in the current one.[47]
Poverty is high among Ultra-Orthodox Jews and
The Israeli welfare system is less effective than most OECD countries. While the median poverty reduction rate through taxes and welfare among OECD countries is 40%, the figure stands at 25% in Israel, the second-lowest rate in the OECD, behind only the United States.[21]
Homelessness is a rare phenomenon. A December 2015 study found there to be about 2,300 homeless people in Israel, out of a population of about 8.5 million. The most common reason for homelessness was substance abuse or alcoholism, followed by financial problems and mental illness.[36]
Poverty rate by district
Percent of population living on less than $2.15, $3.65 and $6.85 a day, international dollars (2017 PPP) as per the World Bank.[51]
District | $2.15 | $3.65 | $6.85 | Year |
---|---|---|---|---|
Southern District | 1.22% | 2.45% | 5.41% | 2018 |
Yehuda and Shomron
|
0.62% | 0.62% | 4.24% | 2018 |
Jerusalem | 0.58% | 1.66% | 7.97% | 2018 |
Northern District | 0.48% | 0.86% | 3.75% | 2018 |
Haifa | 0.11% | 0.83% | 1.81% | 2018 |
Tel Aviv | 0.11% | 0.21% | 1.05% | 2018 |
Central District | 0.07% | 0.39% | 0.84% | 2018 |
Social mobility
Social mobility in Israel is high by Western standards. According to statistics from the late 1990s, which, based on other tests, are not believed to have changed significantly, class mobility rates in Israel are between 72 and 74%, higher than in other developed countries including the United States, United Kingdom, and France. Although there is relatively high equality of opportunity, there are still significant differences that remain. Ashkenazi Jews were found to be wealthier on average than Mizrahi Jews, who were in turn wealthier than Arabs.[52]
Israel is cited as having high social mobility due to the volume of Jewish immigrants in recent history. The current state of Israel shows fluid mobility among these Jewish immigrants.[53] A possible reason for this ethnic difference in mobility is the relatively young age of the state of Israel and how it has changed economically and demographically through 21st century industrialization. Traditionally, there have been three endogenous demographics of Israel. These are Ashkenazi Jews, Mizrahi Jews, and Arabs.[54] As the state of Israel was largely established as a home for Jewish people, immigrants of the religion rapidly migrated to Israel over the course of the 20th century. In terms of numbered population, there were 650,000 Jews in Israel in 1948; however, by 1964 there were over 2 million.[55] There are multiple arguments to how this mobility through industrialization occurred. The "liberal thesis of industrialization" argues that industrialization will provide a higher rate of upward mobility over downward mobility as well as improved social equality. The view favored by marxists opposes the liberal thesis, arguing that while industrialization did create increased social mobility in Israel, it has lessened over time and only remained for select groups of people.[56] Both of these views show that there has indeed been a history of high social mobility in Israel in comparison to other developed countries; however, the absolute distribution and application of this high rate to all citizens is likely not fully universal.[citation needed]
An additional factor in social mobility is education. From the below table, average years of schooling are listed for workers, managers, self-employed, and employers. Because there is a significant difference between self-employed and employers (Owners) and managers,[57] it should be evident that less education does not provide a statistical disadvantage in obtaining higher positions of ownership and consequently higher socioeconomic status.
Without Authority | With Authority | Total | |
---|---|---|---|
Salaried Employees | Workers
11.24 (528) |
Managers
12.35 (419) |
11.73 (947) |
Owners | Self-Employed
11.13 (113) |
Employers
10.85 (80) |
11.02 (193) |
Total | 11.22 (641) | 12.11 (499) | 11.61 (1140) |
In general, Israel is considered a highly educated state and ranks well among
Work and leisure time
Israeli work hours are long by Western standards. The official Israeli workweek is 43 hours, with employers legally prohibited from compelling employees to work more than 47 hours per week. Among men, the average workweek is 45.8 hours, with the average workweek for women at 37.1 hours.[64] The vast majority of Israeli workers also perform work, largely through answering emails, messages, and phone calls, on evenings, weekends, and vacations, though many do so voluntarily.[65]
In 2011, Israelis received 19 vacation days on average, less than in Europe but more than in the United States.[66] Most Israelis can afford to take vacations abroad. In 2013, 65% of Israelis vacationed abroad.[67]
Infrastructure
Israel has 42 designated highways and an advanced
Israel has tapped conventional water resources, but relies heavily on reclaimed water treated in the 120 wastewater treatment plants across the country, and desalinated seawater. 57% of water in Israel is for agriculture, 36% for domestic and public use, and 7% for industrial use. Average domestic water consumption in Israel is 250 liters per person per day, which is higher than in most of Europe, but lower than the United States.[68] According to the Ministry of Environment, 97.9% of all tests of water complied with drinking water standards. Israel also has a modern sanitation system, particularly in major Jewish cities and towns. An estimated 500,000 homes in Israel are not linked to a sewage system, the vast majority of them Arab homes, where waste is expelled into cesspits or the environment.[69]
Urban life
Israel is a highly urbanized nation, with 92 percent of its population living in urban areas. To be granted city status, a municipality must have a population of at least 20,000.[70] There are currently 78 cities in Israel, and 14 of them have populations over 100,000. Other urban municipalities are towns. Towns in Israel are given local council status if they have a population over 2,000.[71]
In urban areas, most residential areas are separated from industrial and commercial zones, and there are also numerous, well-tended parks and playgrounds within the city or town limits.[72]
Rural life
Israelis who live in rural areas primarily live on kibbutzim or moshavim. A kibbutz is a collective community, where the residents work for the benefit of the community. Although many kibbutzim have been privatized, residents typically live communally. Kibbutzim are for the most part self-sufficient, and have their own schools. Most kibbutzim are agricultural, though some have switched to industry.[dubious ][citation needed]
A moshav is also a collective community, but the land is divided among the residents, who each receive an equal amount, and must grow their own produce. The community is supported by a collective tax, which is equal for all the residents, thus leaving good farmers better off than bad ones.[citation needed]
A moshava is another type of rural agricultural community in Israel, but unlike kibbutzim or moshavim, all the land is privately owned. A moshav shitufi is another type of cooperative village in Israel, where all production and services are handled collectively, while consumption decisions remain the responsibilities of individual households.[citation needed]
In addition to the previously listed settlements, which are recognized by the Israeli government, there are also unrecognized villages in rural areas. The residents of these villages are often Bedouins, who are indigenous Palestinians and historically practiced a semi nomadic lifestyle. Since their villages are unrecognized, they lack access to water, electricity, roads, and formal education. As a form of resistance to Israeli occupation, they create their own resources and schools.
See also
Further reading
- Nitsa (Kaliner) Kasir and Dmitri Romanov, 2018. "Quality of Life Among Israel’s Population Groups – Comparative study". The Haredi Institute for Public Affairs.
References
- ^ ISBN 9781412834636. Archivedfrom the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
- ^ The Challenge Of Israel by Misha Louvish
- ^ Israel: A History by Anita Shapira
- ISBN 0-8050-6660-8)
- ^ Nahmias, Yossi (29 April 2008). "Good evening from Jerusalem – Good evening from Jerusalem". Ynetnews. ynetnews.com. Archived from the original on 20 July 2015. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
- ^ "Allegheny Times ; Israel is a socialist basket case". Archived from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
- ^ a b "Israel Narrowing Standard of Living Gap with US – Inside Israel – News – Arutz Sheva". israelnationalnews.com. 18 December 2011. Archived from the original on 20 September 2015. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
- ^ Mort, Jo-Ann and Brenner, Gary:Our Hearts Invented a Place: Can Kibbutzim Survive in Today's Israel? (2003), Preface
- ^ UN report: Israel 23rd on quality of life list Archived 12 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine – Ynetnews
- ^ Israel ranked 15th in quality of life Archived 12 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine – Ynetnews
- ^ "'Israel falling behind Western living standards' – National News – Jerusalem Post | 'Israel falling behind Western living standards'". The Jerusalem Post | Jpost.com. jpost.com. Archived from the original on 10 June 2015. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
- ^ "Competition committee to fight high cost of living | The Times of Israel". timesofisrael.com. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
- ^ "Finance panel okays plan to end economic concentration – Israel Business". Ynetnews. ynetnews.com. 26 November 2013. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
- ^ "Israel in Figures 2011" (PDF). Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. 2011. p. 10. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
- ^ "Human Development Report 2020: The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 2020. p. 32. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 February 2021. Retrieved 16 December 2017.
- ^ Ynet (20 March 2023). "Israel ranks 4th happiest country on Earth in 2023". Ynetnews. Retrieved 13 November 2023.
- ^ Nishlis, Idan (1 January 2023). ""The Economist" ranks Israel fourth best performing economy in 2022". Israel Desks. Retrieved 13 November 2023.
- ^ "Which economy did best in 2023?". Yahoo Finance. 17 December 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2024.
- ^ "Worldwide, Median Household Income About $10,000". 16 December 2013. Archived from the original on 5 February 2016. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
- ^ a b "Israelis as rich as most Europeans – report". The Times of Israel. Archived from the original on 24 September 2016. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
- ^ a b "Gaping Gaps: Income Inequality in Israel". 2 September 2014. Archived from the original on 22 October 2016. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
- ^ "Israeli tax burden not too onerous after all, report shows". The Times of Israel. Archived from the original on 28 September 2016. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
- ^ Swift, Robert (19 January 2016). "The cost of living in Israel: It's as bad as you thought". Ynetnews. Archived from the original on 24 September 2016. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
- ^ "Israel's cost of living on the decline, study finds – Business & Innovation – Jerusalem Post". The Jerusalem Post | Jpost.com. Archived from the original on 23 September 2016. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
- ^ "About two million Israelis live below the poverty line - report". Jerusalem Post. 22 January 2021. Retrieved 10 November 2022.
- ^ "Table 14.- Ownership of Durable Goods in Deciles of Households by Net Income Per Standard Person" (PDF). Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 December 2017. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
- ^ "Census figures: 2.2 kids, 2.1 cell phones per family – Israel News, Ynetnews". Ynetnews. ynetnews.com. 4 May 2010. Archived from the original on 24 December 2014. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
- ^ ""HOUSEHOLDS, BY HOUSING DENSITY, TYPE OF LOCALITY OF RESIDENCE AND POPULATION GROUP", Statistical Abstract of Israel 2017". www.cbs.gov.il. Archived from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
- ^ "How's Life? 2017: Measuring Well-being". www.oecd-ilibrary.org. Archived from the original on 23 January 2021. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
- ^ "Housing in Israel – Findings from the 2014 Household Expenditure Survey". www.cbs.gov.il. 18 November 2015. Archived from the original on 10 June 2017.
- ^ "Four years after tent protests, hope in short supply for would-be homebuyers". The Times of Israel. Archived from the original on 24 September 2016. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
- ^ "Housing & Real Estate in Israel". Archived from the original on 20 September 2016. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
- ^ a b "Surviving Israeli Health Care | New Voices". newvoices.org. 10 August 2009. Archived from the original on 31 May 2012. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
- ^ "Israel ranks 4th globally in health care efficiency". The Times of Israel. Archived from the original on 12 August 2016. Retrieved 26 September 2016.
- ^ CIA Country Comparison: Life expectancy at birth https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html?countryName=Israel&countryCode=is®ionCode=me&rank=13#is Archived 6 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine date accessed: 14 January 2010
- ^ a b "In Israel, infant mortality rate 3 times higher among Arabs". The Times of Israel. Archived from the original on 27 September 2016. Retrieved 26 September 2016.
- ^ "Israel is 4th most educated country in the world". israel21c.org. 15 September 2014. Archived from the original on 2 October 2016. Retrieved 29 September 2016.
- ^ CIA World Factbook: Israel https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/israel/ Archived 13 September 2021 at the Wayback Machine date accessed: 14 January 2010
- ^ Human Development Report 2009: Illiteracy Rate http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/indicators/99.html Archived 11 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine date accessed: 14 January 2010
- ^ "SECOND CLASS". Human Rights Watch. 30 September 2001. Archived from the original on 9 October 2012. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
- ^ "World Universities' ranking on the Web: Top Asia". Archived from the original on 4 October 2009. Retrieved 4 October 2009.
- ^ "Israel Ranks in Top 10 for Millionaires per Capita, Ahead of Canada, Japan". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 31 August 2021. Retrieved 31 August 2021.
- ^ "Study finds major gap between upper and lower middle class in Israel – Business – Jerusalem Post". Archived from the original on 20 November 2016. Retrieved 19 November 2016.
- ^ a b Shtrasler, Nehemia (15 December 2015). "Fuzzy Math Exaggerates Israel's Working-poor Problem". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 27 September 2016. Retrieved 26 September 2016.
- ^ Israel's poverty rates highest among OECD nations Archived 14 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine YNET, 14 January 2016
- ^ "Who Benefits the Most? The Unequal Allocation of Transfers in the Israeli Welfare State" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 February 2016. Retrieved 19 December 2012.
- ^ a b ynet Archived 11 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine Ynet (02.14.08, 17:31), accessed 18 August 2008.
- ^ " Poverty in the world and in Israel: 2007-2008" AMIT.org.il. Archived 17 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine amit.org.il (02.14.08, 17:31), accessed 18 August 2008.
- ^ "Times of Israel". Times of Israel. 31 December 2019. Archived from the original on 1 January 2020. Retrieved 16 January 2020.
- ^ "Report-F-new.indd" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 January 2012. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
- ^ "Geospatial Poverty Portal: Interactive Maps". World Bank. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
- ^ Sadeh, Shuki (7 May 2015). "Class Mobility is Relatively High in Israel – at Least Among Jews". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 27 September 2016. Retrieved 26 September 2016.
- JSTOR 3559547.
- ^ JSTOR 2095306.
- doi:10.1086/225497.
- .
- ^ a b Yuchtman-Yaar, Ephraim (Spring–Autumn 1985). "Differences in Ethnic Patterns of Socioeconomic Achievements in Israel – A Neglected Aspect of Structured Inequality". International Review of Modern Sociology. 15: 99–116.
- ^ Andreas Schleicher (2013). "ISRAEL – Education at a Glance 2013" (PDF). OECD. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 4 July 2015.
- ^ a b Alon, Sigal (2015). Race, Class, and Affirmative Action. Russel Sage Foundation.
- .
- ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 October 2016. Retrieved 5 December 2017.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ .
- S2CID 143482812.
- ^ "Israeli Workers' Average Salary Rose 1.4% in 2013 to $2,376". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 31 August 2021. Retrieved 31 August 2021.
- ^ "Work invading Israelis' home lives – Globes". en.globes.co.il. 28 April 2014. Archived from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 31 August 2021.
- ^ "Israel below Europe, above US, in work vacation days – Globes". en.globes.co.il. 3 July 2011. Archived from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 31 August 2021.
- ^ "65% of Israelis took vacation abroad in 2013 – Globes". 19 January 2014. Archived from the original on 22 December 2017. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
- ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 27 November 2006. Retrieved 16 September 2008.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ "Advertisement". haaretz.com. Archived from the original on 12 March 2010. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
- ^ "Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs | Israeli Democracy – How does it Work?". mfa.gov.il. Archived from the original on 22 August 2016. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
- ^ Troen, Selwyn Ilan; Noah Lucas. Israel: The First Decade of Independence. SUNY Press, p. 496
- ^ Looking at Israel- Urban and Rural Life Archived 22 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine – Israeli Foreign Ministry (2 December 2007)