Prayer

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Prayer
Variants and related concepts
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Prayer in various traditions (List)
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v t e

Prayer is an

Prayer can take a variety of forms: it can be part of a set liturgy or ritual, and it can be performed alone or in groups. Prayer may take the form of a hymn, incantation, formal creedal statement, or a spontaneous utterance in the praying person.

The act of prayer is attested in written sources as early as five thousand years ago. Today, most major religions involve prayer in one way or another; some ritualize the act, requiring a strict sequence of actions or placing a restriction on who is permitted to pray, while others teach that prayer may be practised spontaneously by anyone at any time.

Scientific studies regarding the use of prayer have mostly concentrated on its effect on the healing of sick or injured people. The efficacy of prayer in faith healing has been evaluated in numerous studies, with contradictory results.

Etymology

The English term prayer is from

Act of prayer

Various spiritual traditions offer a wide variety of devotional acts. There are morning and evening prayers,

extemporaneous

prayers. Still others combine the two.

Typologies and modalities

Christian circles often look to

Prayer may occur privately and individually (sometimes called affective prayer[12]), or corporately in the presence of fellow-believers. Prayer can be incorporated into a daily "thought life", in which one is in constant communication with a god. Some people pray throughout all that is happening during the day and seek guidance as the day progresses. This is actually regarded as a requirement in several Christian denominations,^[13] although enforcement is not possible nor desirable. There can be many different answers to prayer, just as there are many ways to interpret an answer to a question, if there in fact comes an answer.^[13] Some may experience audible, physical, or mental epiphanies. If indeed an answer comes, the time and place it comes is considered^{[citation needed]} random.

Some traditions distinguish between contemplative and meditative prayer.^[14]

Outward acts that may accompany prayer include

); and making the sign of the cross. One less noticeable act related to prayer is fasting.

A variety of body postures may be assumed, often with specific meaning (mainly respect or adoration) associated with them: standing; sitting; kneeling; prostrate on the floor; eyes opened; eyes closed; hands folded or clasped; hands upraised; holding hands with others; a laying on of hands and others. Prayers may be recited from memory, read from a book of prayers, or composed spontaneously as they are prayed. They may be said, chanted, or sung. They may or may not have a musical accompaniment. There may be a time of outward silence while prayers are offered mentally. Often, there are prayers to fit specific occasions, such as the blessing of a meal, the birth or death of a loved one, other significant events in the life of a believer, or days of the year that have special religious significance. Details corresponding to specific traditions are outlined below.

Origins and early history

Anthropologically, the concept of prayer is closely related to that of

. The traditional posture of prayer in medieval Europe is kneeling or supine with clasped hands, in antiquity more typically with raised hands. The early Christian prayer posture was standing, looking up to heaven, with outspread arms and bare head. This is the pre-Christian, pagan prayer posture (except for the bare head, which was prescribed for males in I Corinthians 11:4, in Roman paganism, the head had to be covered in prayer). Certain Cretan and Cypriote figures of the Late Bronze Age, with arms raised, have been interpreted as worshippers. Their posture is similar to the "flight" posture, a crouching posture with raised hands related to the universal "hands up" gesture of surrender. The kneeling posture with clasped hands appears to have been introduced only with the beginning high medieval period, presumably adopted from a gesture of feudal homage.^[21]

Although prayer in its literal sense is not used in

Some of the oldest extant literature, such as the

Reliable records are available for the polytheistic religions of the Iron Age, most notably Ancient Greek religion, which strongly influenced Roman religion. These religious traditions were direct developments of the earlier Bronze Age religions. Ceremonial prayer was highly formulaic and ritualized.^[24][25]

In ancient polytheism,

). Vestiges of ancestor worship persist, to a greater or lesser extent, in modern religious traditions throughout the world, most notably in Japanese

ema

.

Prayers in Etruscan were used in the Roman world by augurs and other oracles long after Etruscan became a dead language. The Carmen Arvale and the Carmen Saliare are two specimens of partially preserved prayers that seem to have been unintelligible to their scribes and whose language is full of archaisms and difficult passages.^[26]

Roman prayers and sacrifices were envisioned as legal bargains between deity and worshipper. The Roman principle was expressed as do ut des: "I give, so that you may give." Cato the Elder's treatise on agriculture contains many examples of preserved traditional prayers; in one, a farmer addresses the unknown deity of a possibly sacred grove, and sacrifices a pig in order to placate the god or goddess of the place and beseech his or her permission to cut down some trees from the grove.^[27]

pagan Norse prayer in Sigrdrífumál; illustration by Arthur Rackham

A prayer to Odin is mentioned in chapter 2 of the Völsunga saga where King Rerir prays for a child. In stanza 9 of the poem Oddrúnargrátr, a prayer is made to "kind wights, Frigg and Freyja, and many gods,^[29] In chapter 21 of Jómsvíkinga saga, wishing to turn the tide of the Battle of Hjörungavágr, Haakon Sigurdsson eventually finds his prayers answered by the goddesses Þorgerðr Hölgabrúðr and Irpa.^[30]

In

Approaches to prayer

Direct petitions

There are different forms of prayer. One of them is to directly appeal to a deity to grant one's requests.[36] Some have termed this as the social approach to prayer.^[37]

This potential drawback manifests in extreme forms in such cases as

Christopher Hitchens (2012) argued that praying to a god which is omnipotent and all-knowing would be presumptuous. For example, he interprets Ambrose Bierce's definition of prayer by stating that "the man who prays is the one who thinks that god has arranged matters all wrong, but who also thinks that he can instruct god how to put them right."^[40]

Educational approach

In this view, prayer is not a conversation. Rather, it is meant to inculcate certain attitudes in the one who prays, but not to influence. Among Jews, this has been the approach of Rabbenu Bachya, Rabbi

(p. XIII).

Among Christian theologians, E.M. Bounds stated the educational purpose of prayer in every chapter of his book, The Necessity of Prayer. Prayer books such as the Book of Common Prayer are both a result of this approach and an exhortation to keep it.^[41]

Rationalist approach

In this view, the ultimate goal of prayer is to help train a person to focus on divinity through philosophy and intellectual contemplation (meditation). This approach was taken by the Jewish scholar and philosopher Maimonides^[42] and the other medieval rationalists.^[43] It became popular in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic intellectual circles, but never became the most popular understanding of prayer among the laity in any of these faiths. In all three of these faiths today, a significant minority of people still hold to this approach.

In a rationalist approach, praying encompasses three aspects. First, 'logos', as the "idea" of the sender, secondly 'rhemata' as the words to express the idea, and thirdly 'rhemata' and 'logos', to where the idea is sent (e.g. to God, Allah). Thus praying is not a conversation with God, or Jesus but a one-way direction to the divine.^[44] Among the Abrahamic religions, Islam, Orthodox Christianity and Hasidic Judaism are likely most adhering to this concept, also because it does not allow secondary mythologies, and has taken its spiritual roots from Hellenistic philosophy, particularly from Aristotle.^[45]

Similarly in Hinduism, the different divinities are manifestations of one God with associated prayers. However, many Indians – particularly Hindus – believe that God can be manifest in people, including in people of lower castes, such as Sadhus.^[46]

Experiential approach

In this approach, the purpose of prayer is to enable the person praying to gain a direct experience of the recipient of the prayer (or as close to direct as a specific theology permits). This approach is very significant in Christianity and widespread in Judaism (although less popular theologically). In

, although the contemplation is not generally viewed as being as rational or intellectual.

Christian and Roman Catholic traditions also include an experiential approach to prayer within the practice of

. This form of prayerful reflection is of great value, but Christian prayer should go further: to the knowledge of the love of the Lord Jesus, to union with him.

The experience of God within Christian mysticism has been contrasted with the concept of experiential religion or mystical experience because of a long history or authors living and writing about experience with the divine in a manner that identifies God as unknowable and ineffable, the language of such ideas could be characterized paradoxically as "experiential", as well as without the phenomena of experience.^[48]

The notion of "religious experience" can be traced back to William James, who used a term called "religious experience" in his book, The Varieties of Religious Experience.^{[49][citation not found]} The origins of the use of this term can be dated further back.

In the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, several historical figures put forth very influential views that religion and its beliefs can be grounded in experience itself. While

Orthodox religions.^[51]

religious beliefs

.

Such religious empiricism would be later seen as highly problematic and was – during the period in-between world wars – famously rejected by Karl Barth.^[52] In the 20th century, religious as well as moral experience as justification for religious beliefs still holds sway. Some influential modern scholars holding this liberal theological view are Charles Raven and the Oxford physicist/theologian Charles Coulson.^[53]

The notion of "religious experience" was adopted by many scholars of religion, of whom William James was the most influential.^[54][a]

The notion of "experience" has been criticised.^{[59][60][citation not found][61][citation not found]} Robert Sharf points out that "experience" is a typical Western term, which has found its way into Asian religiosity via western influences.^[62][b] The notion of "experience" introduces a false notion of duality between "experiencer" and "experienced", whereas the essence of kensho is the realisation of the "non-duality" of observer and observed.^{[63][citation not found][64][citation not found]} "Pure experience" does not exist; all experience is mediated by intellectual and cognitive activity.^{[65][citation not found][66][citation not found]} The specific teachings and practices of a specific tradition may even determine what "experience" someone has, which means that this "experience" is not the proof of the teaching, but a result of the teaching.^{[67][citation not found]} A pure consciousness without concepts, reached by "cleaning the doors of perception",^[c] would be an overwhelming chaos of sensory input without coherence.^{[69][citation not found]}

Abrahamic religions

Hebrew Bible

Main article: Prayer in the Hebrew Bible

Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld

In the Hebrew Bible prayer is an evolving means of interacting with

form practiced by modern Jews

.

Individual prayer is described by the Tanakh two ways. The first of these is when prayer is described as occurring, and a result is achieved, but no further information regarding a person's prayer is given. In these instances, such as with

Hannah to Hezekiah.^[74]

New Testament

Main article:

Prayer in the New Testament

In the New Testament prayer is presented as a positive command.[75] The People of God are challenged to include Christian prayer in their everyday life, even in the busy struggles of marriage^[76] as it brings people closer to God.

Jesus encouraged his disciples to pray in secret in their private rooms, using the Lord's Prayer, as a humble response to the prayer of the Pharisees, whose practices in prayer were regarded as impious by the New Testament writers.^[77]

For

Book of James says that the lack of blessings in life results from a failure to pray.^[79] Jesus healed through prayer and expected his followers to do so also.^[80] The apostle Paul wrote to the churches of Thessalonica to "Pray continually."^[81]

Judaism

Main article: Jewish prayer

Observant Jews pray three times a day,

Musaf and the reading of the Torah. The siddur is the prayerbook used by Jews all over the world, containing a set order of daily prayers. Jewish prayer is usually described as having two aspects: kavanah

(intention) and keva (the ritualistic, structured elements).

The most important Jewish prayers are the

Shema Yisrael ("Hear O Israel") and the Amidah

("the standing prayer").

Communal prayer is preferred over solitary prayer, and a quorum of ten adult males (a minyan) is considered by Orthodox Judaism a prerequisite for several communal prayers.

Orthodox Jewish men praying in Jerusalem's Western Wall

There are also many other ritualistic prayers a Jew performs during their day, such as washing before eating bread, washing after one wakes up in the morning, and doing grace after meals.

Rationalist approach

In this view, the ultimate goal of prayer is to help train a person to focus on divinity through philosophy and intellectual contemplation. This approach was taken by Maimonides and the other medieval rationalists. One example of this approach to prayer is noted by Rabbi Steven Weil, who was appointed the Orthodox Union's Executive-Vice President in 2009. He notes that the word "prayer" is a derivative of the Latin "precari", which means "to beg". The Hebrew equivalent "tefilah", however, along with its root "pelel" or its reflexive "l'hitpallel", means the act of self-analysis or self-evaluation.^[82] This approach is sometimes described as the person praying having a dialogue or conversation with God.^[83]

Educational approach

In this view, prayer is not a conversation. Rather, it is meant to inculcate certain attitudes in the one who prays, but not to influence. This has been the approach of Rabbenu Bachya,

Artscroll

Siddur (p. XIII); note that Scherman goes on to also affirm the Kabbalistic view (see below).

Kabbalistic approach

Kabbalah uses a series of kavanot, directions of intent, to specify the path the prayer ascends in the dialog with God, to increase its chances of being answered favorably. Kabbalists ascribe a higher meaning to the purpose of prayer, which is no less than affecting the very fabric of reality itself, restructuring and repairing the universe in a real fashion. In this view, every word of every prayer, and indeed, even every letter of every word, has a precise meaning and a precise effect. Prayers thus literally affect the mystical forces of the universe, and repair the fabric of creation.^[84]

Among Jews, this approach has been taken by the

Chassidei Ashkenaz (German pietists of the Middle-Ages), the Arizal's Kabbalist tradition, Ramchal, most of Hassidism, the Vilna Gaon, and Jacob Emden

.

Christianity

Main articles: Christian prayer and Christian worship

Our Father in heaven, hallowed be your name. Your kingdom come. Your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our debts, as we also have forgiven our debtors. And do not bring us to the time of trial, but rescue us from the evil one.

—known as "

The Lord's Prayer"^[85]

Christian prayers are quite varied. They can be completely spontaneous, or read entirely from a text, like the Anglican Book of Common Prayer. The most common prayer among Christians is the Lord's Prayer, which according to the gospel accounts (e.g. Matthew 6:9–13) is how Jesus taught his disciples to pray.^[86] The Lord's Prayer is a model for prayers of adoration, confession and petition in Christianity.^[86]

In the second century

Oriental Orthodox Christians to pray these seven canonical hours while facing in the eastward direction of prayer.^[89][90]

In medieval England, prayers (particularly the paternoster) were frequently used as a measure of time in medical and culinary recipe books.^[91]

Christians generally pray to God. Some Christians, such as Catholics, Lutherans, Orthodox, and Methodists

Virgin Mary or other saints to intercede by praying on their behalf (intercession of saints). Formulaic closures in many Christian denominations, such as Lutheranism and Catholicism include "through our Lord Jesus Christ, Your Son, who lives and reigns with You, in the unity of the Holy Spirit, God, through all the ages of ages," and "in the name of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit."^[94]

It is customary among Christians to end prayers with "In Jesus' name, Amen" or more commonly, with the sign of the cross while saying the Trinitarian formula.^[94][95] The most commonly used closure of prayer in Christianity is "Amen" (from a Hebrew adverb used as a statement of affirmation or agreement, usually translated as so be it).

In the Latin Church of the Catholic Church, probably the most common is the Rosary; in the Eastern Christianity (including the Eastern Catholic Churches of the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church), the Jesus Prayer. The Jesus Prayer is also often repeated as part of the meditative hesychasm practice in Eastern Christianity.^[96]

Latin Catholic tradition includes specific prayers and devotions as

repair of the sin of blasphemy performed by others.^[97]

Pentecostalism

In

glossolalia.^[98] Practitioners of Pentecostal glossolalia may claim that the languages they speak in prayer are real foreign languages, and that the ability to speak those languages spontaneously is a gift of the Holy Spirit.^{[99][100][101]} Some people outside of the movement, however, have offered dissenting views. George Barton Cutten suggested that glossolalia was a sign of mental illness.^[102] Felicitas Goodman suggested that tongue speakers were under a form of hypnosis.^[103] Others suggest that it is a learned behaviour.^[104][105] Some of these views have allegedly been refuted.^[106][107]

Christian Science

intercessory prayer as it is commonly understood, and they generally avoid combining prayer with medical treatment in the belief that the two practices tend to work against each other. Prayer works through love: the recognition of God's creation as spiritual, intact, and inherently lovable.^[109]

Islam

Main articles: Salah and Dua

The

Shi'a sects pray the five daily prayers divided into three separate parts of the day, providing several Hadith as supporting evidence;^[112] although according to Shia Islam, it is also permissible to pray at five times.^[113]

Mandaeism

Main article:

Daily prayer in Mandaeism

Daily prayer in Mandaeism called brakha consists of a set prayers that are recited three times per day.^[114] Mandaeans stand facing north while reciting daily prayers.^[115] Unlike in Islam and Coptic Orthodox Christianity, prostration

is not practiced.

Mandaean priests recite rahma prayers^[116][117] three times every day, while laypeople also recite the Rushma (signing prayer) and Asiet Malkia ("Healing of Kings") daily.^[114]

The three prayer times in Mandaeism are:^[118][116]

• dawn (sunrise)
• noontime (the "seventh hour")
• evening (sunset)

Baháʼí Faith

Main article: Prayer in the Baháʼí Faith

`Abdu'l-Bahá wrote many prayers for general use, and some for specific occasions, including for unity, detachment, spiritual upliftment, and healing among others. Followers of the Baháʼí Faith are also required to recite each day one of three obligatory prayers composed by Bahá'u'lláh. The believers have been enjoined to face in the direction of the Qiblih when reciting their Obligatory Prayer. The longest obligatory prayer may be recited at any time during the day; another, of medium length, is recited once in the morning, once at midday, and once in the evening; and the shortest can be recited anytime between noon and sunset. Baháʼís also read from and meditate on the scriptures every morning and evening.^[119]

Baptism

Main article: John the Baptist

Baptists (not to be confused with the Protestant Christian denomination of Baptists) and their prayers play a special role in Christianity, and represent the more theologic and rational approach to Christian praying.

Koran and the practice of Muslim prayers. Islam has preserved the tradition of baptizing in the form of ablution and ritual Ghusl for purification purposes.^[120][121]

Eastern religions

Further information: Eastern religions, Meditation, and Mantra

In both

Dhāraṇī originate as recitations of lists of names or attributes of deities. Most of the shorter Buddhist mantras originate as the invocation of the name of a specific deity or bodhisattva, such as Om mani padme hum being in origin the invocation of a bodhisattva called Maṇipadma. However, from an early time these mantras were interpreted in the context of mystical sound symbolism. The most extreme example of this is the om syllable, which as early as in the Aitareya Brahmana was claimed as equivalent to the entire Vedas (collection of ritual hymns).^[122]

Buddhism

In the earliest Buddhist tradition, the

Chán), prayer plays only an ancillary role. It is largely a ritual expression of wishes for success in the practice and in helping all beings.^{[123][need quotation to verify}

]

The

pariṇāmanā) is an evocation

and prayer. Moreover, indeterminate buddhas are available for intercession as they reside in awoken-fields (Sanskrit: buddha-kshetra).

The

Bodhi mind, and all to be reborn in the Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss." (願以此功德 莊嚴佛淨土 上報四重恩 下濟三途苦 普願諸眾生 冤親諸債主 悉發菩提心 同生極樂國)^[125]

The

Generation Stage (Sanskrit: utpatti-krama) of Vajrayana involves prayer elements.^[126]

The

tutelary deities will depend upon the level or more appropriately yana at which they are practicing. At one level, one may pray to a deity for protection or assistance, taking a more subordinate role. At another level, one may invoke the deity, on a more equal footing. And at a higher level one may deliberately cultivate the idea that one has become the deity, whilst remaining aware that its ultimate nature is śūnyatā

. The views of the more esoteric yana are impenetrable for those without direct experience and empowerment.

Sambhogakāya land (Sanskrit: buddha-kshetra) after bodily dissolution, a sheer ball spontaneously co-emergent to a Buddha's enlightened intention. According to Shinran, the founder of the Pure Land Buddhism tradition that is most prevalent in the US,^{[127]: 193 [128]} "for the long haul nothing is as efficacious as the Nembutsu."^{[127]: 197 [129]} On another, the practice is a form of meditation aimed at achieving realization.^[130]

But beyond all these practices the Buddha emphasized the primacy of individual practice and experience. He said that supplication to gods or deities was not necessary. Nevertheless, today many lay people in East Asian countries pray to the Buddha in ways that resemble Western prayer—asking for intervention and offering devotion.

Hinduism

Main article: Prayer in Hinduism

.

Sikhism

Sikh holy man, doing Sikh prayer (Ardās

)

The

(hymn-singing) program or any other religious program. In Sikhism, these prayers are also said before and after eating. The prayer is a plea to God to support and help the devotee with whatever he or she is about to undertake or has done.

The Ardas is usually always done standing up with folded hands. The beginning of the Ardas is strictly set by the tenth Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh. When it comes to conclusion of this prayer, the devotee uses words like "Waheguru please bless me in the task that I am about to undertake" when starting a new task or "Akal Purakh, having completed the hymn-singing, we ask for your continued blessings so that we can continue with your memory and remember you at all times", etc. The word "Ardās" is derived from Persian word 'Arazdashat', meaning a request, supplication, prayer, petition or an address to a superior authority.

Ardās is a unique prayer based on the fact that it is one of the few well-known prayers in the Sikh religion that was not written in its entirety by the Gurus. The Ardās cannot be found within the pages of the Guru Granth Sahib because it is a continually changing devotional text that has evolved over time in order for it to encompass the feats, accomplishments, and feelings of all generations of Sikhs within its lines. Taking the various derivation of the word Ardās into account, the basic purpose of this prayer is an appeal to Waheguru for his protection and care, as well as being a plea for the welfare and prosperity of all mankind, and a means for the Sikhs to thank Waheguru for all that he has done.^[132][133]

Iranian religions

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrians are not fire-worshippers, as some Westerners wrongly believe. Zoroastrians believe that the elements are pure and that fire represents God's light or wisdom.^[134] Zoroastrian worship practices have evolved from ancient times to the present day. Over time, Zoroastrians developed the concept of worshipping in temples, sometimes called fire temples.^[135]

New religious movements

In Raëlism rites and practises vary from initiation ceremonies to sensual meditation. An initiation ceremony usually involves a Raelian putting water on the forehead of a new member. Such ceremonies take place on certain special days on the Raelian calendar.^[137] Sensual meditation techniques include breathing exercises and various forms of erotic meditation.^[138]

In Eckankar, one of the basic forms of prayer includes singing the word "HU" (pronounced as "hue"), a holy name of God. ECKists may do this with eyes closed or open, aloud or silently. Practitioners may experience the divine ECK or Holy Spirit.^[139]

Practitioners of

, or another spiritual being, and the "prayer from the heart" to be that spiritual force speaking through the participant.

Stele of Revealing

.

In

While no dogma within Thelema expresses the purpose behind any individual aspirant who chooses to perform "Resh", note that the practice of "Resh" is not a simple petition toward the sun, nor a form of "worshiping" the celestial body that we call the Sun, but instead uses the positioning of that source of light, which enables life on our planet, as well as using mythological images of that solar force, so that the individual can perform the prayer, possibly furthering a self-identification with the sun, so "that repeated application of the Liber Resh adorations expands the consciousness of the individual by compelling him to take a different perspective, by inducing him to 'look at things from the point of view of the Sun' [...]".[141]

Prayer healing

Prayer is often used as a means of

, or improve health.

Scientific studies regarding the use of prayer have mostly concentrated on its effect on the healing of sick or injured people.

The efficacy of petition in prayer for physical healing to a deity has been evaluated in numerous other studies, with contradictory results.[146]^{[147][148][149]} There has been some criticism of the way the studies were conducted.^[145][150]

Some attempt to heal by prayer, mental practices, spiritual insights, or other techniques, claiming they can summon divine or supernatural intervention on behalf of the ill. Others advocate that ill people may achieve healing through prayer performed by themselves.^[151] According to the varied beliefs of those who practice it, faith healing may be said to afford gradual relief from pain^[152] or sickness or to bring about a sudden "miracle cure", and it may be used in place of, or in tandem with, conventional medical techniques for alleviating or curing diseases. Faith healing has been criticized on the grounds that those who use it may delay seeking potentially curative conventional medical care. This is particularly problematic when parents use faith healing techniques on children.

Efficacy of prayer healing

In 1872,

, it set the precedent for a number of different studies, the results of which are contradictory.

Two studies claimed that patients who are being prayed for recover more quickly or more frequently although critics have claimed that the methodology of such studies are flawed, and the perceived effect disappears when controls are tightened.

although the Harris study did demonstrate the prayed for patients on average received lower course scores (indicating better recovery).

One of the largest randomized, blind clinical trials was a remote retroactive intercessory prayer study conducted in Israel by Leibovici. This study used 3393 patient records from 1990 to 1996, and blindly assigned some of these to an intercessory prayer group. The prayer group had shorter hospital stays and duration of fever.[155]

Several studies of prayer effectiveness have yielded null results.

Many believe that prayer can aid in recovery, not due to divine influence but due to psychological and physical benefits. It has also been suggested that if a person knows that he or she is being prayed for it can be uplifting and increase morale, thus aiding recovery. (See Subject-expectancy effect.) Many studies have suggested that prayer can reduce physical stress, regardless of the god or gods a person prays to, and this may be true for many worldly reasons. According to a study by Centra State Hospital, "the psychological benefits of prayer may help reduce stress and anxiety, promote a more positive outlook, and strengthen the will to live."^[158] Other practices such as yoga, tai chi, and meditation may also have a positive impact on physical and psychological health.

Others feel that the concept of conducting prayer experiments reflects a misunderstanding of the purpose of prayer. The previously mentioned study published in the American Heart Journal indicated that some of the intercessors who took part in it complained about the scripted nature of the prayers that were imposed to them,^[145] saying that this is not the way they usually conduct prayer:

Prior to the start of this study, intercessors reported that they usually receive information about the patient's age, gender and progress reports on their medical condition; converse with family members or the patient (not by fax from a third party); use individualized prayers of their own choosing; and pray for a variable time period based on patient or family request.

One scientific movement attempts to track the physical effects of prayer through neuroscience. Leaders in this movement include Andrew Newberg, an associate professor at the University of Pennsylvania. In Newberg's brain scans, monks, priests, nuns, sisters and gurus alike have exceptionally focused attention and compassion sites. This is a result of the frontal lobe of the brain's engagement (Newberg, 2009). Newburg believes that anybody can connect to the supernatural with practice. Those without religious affiliations benefit from the connection to the metaphysical as well. Newberg also states that further evidence towards humans' need for metaphysical relationships is that as science had increased spirituality has not decreased. Newburg believes that at the end of the 18th century, when the scientific method began to consume^{[page needed]} the human mind, religion could have vanished. However, two hundred years later, the perception of spirituality, in many instances, appears to be gaining in strength (2009). Newberg's research also provides the connection between prayer and meditation and health. By understanding how the brain works during religious experiences and practices Newberg's research shows that the brain changes during these practices allowing an understanding of how religion affects psychological and physical health (2009). For example, brain activity during meditation indicates that people who frequently practice prayer or meditation experience lower blood-pressure, lower heart rates, decreased anxiety, and decreased depression.^[159]

Another paradigm of research returns to the Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research (1979-2007) which has provided an explanatory model for mind-matter interactions. Jahn and his colleagues explain the local and nonlocal effects of consciousness by an explanation of the normal pathways, through those intentions life prayer, can change the praying person's emotion and behavior, and anomalous pathways which can affect another one through the unconscious-implicit order trajectory via quantum nonlocality mechanism.^[160]

Efficacy of prayer for fertility

One study found that prayer combined with

Prevalence of prayer for health

Some modalities of

in the United States, found that in 2002, 43% of Americans pray for their own health, 24% pray for others' health, and 10% participate in a prayer group for their own health.

See also

Further reading

• Bellarmine, Robert (1902). "Eleventh Sunday: The Necessity and Proper Method of Prayer" . Sermons from the Latins. Benziger Brothers.
• Bellarmine, Robert (1847). "The Seventh Precept, Which Is on Prayer." . The Art of Dying Well. Translated by John Dalton. Richardson and Son.
• Deharbe, Joseph (1912). "Chapter. III. Prayer" . A Complete Catechism of the Catholic Religion. Translated by John Fander. Schwartz, Kirwin & Fauss.
• Horstius, Jacob Merlo (1877). "Colloquy between Christ and Man on the right use of Prayer" . The paradise of the Christian soul. London: Burns & Oates.
• Liguori, Alphonsus (1868). "Chapter XXX: Of Prayer" . Preparation for Death. Rivingtons.
• Wynne, John Joseph (1911). "Prayer" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 12. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
• "Part 4: On Prayer" . The catechism of the Council of Trent. Translated by James Donovan. Lucas Brothers. 1829.

Notes

References

1. ^ F.B. Jevons, An Introduction to the Study of Comparative Religion (1908), p. 73
2. ^ Harper, Douglas. "pray (v.)". etymonline.com. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 30 December 2014. Via Old French prier, nominalised use of the Latin adjective precaria "something obtained by entreating, something given as a favour", from precari "to ask for, entreat".
3. ^ Biblical synonyms or alternatives for προσευχή: εὐχή, δέησις, ἔντευξις, εὐχαριστία, αἴτημα, ἱκετηρία. Richard C. Trench, Synonyms of the New Testament, s.v. εὐχή.
4. ^ Strong's Concordance H8605.
5. ^ Littlebird, Sarracina (2008), Sacred Movement: Dance as Prayer in the Pueblo Cultures of the American Southwest (PDF), Barnard College Department of Dance, archived from the original (PDF) on 26 January 2012, retrieved 11 October 2011
6. ^ "The Whirling Dervishes of Rumi – Sufism and Dervishes", WhirlingDervishes.org, archived from the original on 2014-11-04
7. ^ Omkarananda, Swami (n.d.), How to Pray, Omkarananda Ashram Himalayas, archived from the original on 2014-11-04
8. ^ Anonymous (2013-07-03). "Judaism: Jewish Rituals and Practices – Jewish Worship and Prayer". ReligionFacts.com. ReligionFacts. Archived from the original on 2014-11-04.. This practice is known, in Yiddish, as shuckling.
9. ^ Avery, Chel. "Quaker Worship". Quaker Information Center. Archived from the original on 2011-07-28. Retrieved 2008-12-04.
10. ISBN 978-0-8010-2182-4
    .
11. ^ The New Encyclopedia of Islam. p. 20, Cyril Glassé (2003)
12. ^
    ISBN 9781616366575
    . Retrieved 17 September 2023. Private or 'affective' prayer has many forms — meditation, centering prayer, praying the rosary, and devotional prayers of all kinds. But affective prayer has a single aim:to draw us and our loved ones into deeper intimacy with Christ.
13. ^ ^{a b} Wynne, John (1911). "Prayer". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 12. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
14. ^
    ISBN 9780826414205
    . Retrieved 17 September 2023. As the Sixteenth Century progressed, mental prayer came to be divided into discursive meditation if thoughts predominated; affective prayer if the emphasis was on acts of the will; and contemplation if graces infused by God were predominant. Discursive meditation, affective prayer, and contemplation were no longer different acts found in a single period of prayer, but distinct forms of prayer, each with its own proper aim, method and purpose.
15. ^ See, for example, James 5:14
16. ^ Scheckel, Roger J. (January 2004). "The Angelus". The Marian Catechists. Archived from the original on 2008-06-23. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
17. ^ "Buddhist Art". Pacific Asia Museum. 2003. Archived from the original on 2008-07-04. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
18. ^
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    .
19. ^ See for example Origen On Prayer, cited in Lang, Uwe Michael (1 January 2009). "Direction of Prayer, Liturgy, and Church Architecture in the Early Church: Facing East: The Christian Direction of Prayer". Turning Towards the Lord: Orientation in Liturgical Prayer. San Francisco: Ignatius Press.
    ISBN 9781681496085
    . Retrieved 17 September 2023. 'It should be immediately clear that the direction of the rising sun obviously indicates that we ought to pray inclining in that direction, an act which symbolizes the soul looking towards where the true light rises.'
20. ^ Image from "The arts and crafts of our Teutonic forefathers" by G.B. Brown (1910), where it is glossed as "Bronze figure of a German, Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris". "the existence of other bronze barbarians in similar attitudes of prayer and subjection suggests that the composition was a popular one" (Melissa Barden Dowling, Clemency and cruelty in the Roman world, 2006, p. 151)
21. doi:10.1163/156854290X00190
    .
22. ^ "Animism Profile in Cambodia". OMF. Archived from the original on 2007-09-12. Retrieved 2008-04-09.
23. ISBN 978-0-618-77360-2
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24. ^ Rayor, Diane. "The Homeric Hymns". University of California Press. Archived from the original on 2008-10-17. Retrieved 2009-01-14.
25. ^ "Religio Romana". Nova Roma. Retrieved 2009-01-14.
26. ^ Frederic de Forest Allen, Remnants of Early Latin (Boston: Ginn & Heath 1880 and Ginn & Co 1907).
27. De Agri Cultura (141), English translation at: Jonathan Slocum; Carol Justus, eds. (13 May 2014), "Cato's Mars Prayer", Indo-European Texts: Old Latin, Linguistics Research Center at UT Austin, archived from the original
    on 3 September 2006
28. ^ "The Poetic Edda: Sigrdrifumol".
29. ISBN 0-415-19789-9
30. ISBN 0-292-77623-3
31. ^ Gordon, R. K. (1962). Anglo-Saxon Poetry. Everyman's Library #794. M. Dent & Sons^{[page needed]}
32. ISBN 0-313-30054-2
33. ISBN 0-19-815795-9
34. ISBN 978-0-89281-421-3
    .
35. ^ "Prayer stick". Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition.
36. ISBN 978-0-8108-7283-7
    .
37. ^ Greenberg, Moshe. Biblical Prose Prayer: As a Window to the Popular Religion of Ancient Israel. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1983 [1]
38. OCLC 156811900
    . Surely it does the world no harm if those who can honestly do so pray for me! No, I'm not at all sure about that. For one thing, if they really wanted to do something useful, they could devote their prayer time and energy to some pressing project that they can do something about.
39. ^ Margolick, David (6 August 1990). "In Child Deaths, a Test for Christian Science". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2014-11-04.
40. OCLC 776526158.^{[page needed}
    ]
41. ISBN 978-0-8010-0659-3
    .
42. ^ Guide to the Perplexed 3:51^{[not specific enough to verify]}
43. Sefer ha-Ikkarim
    4:18
44. ^ Reeves R. (JUNE 11, 2015) "No, Prayer Isn’t Really a Conversation" Christianity Today. Accessed 9 April 2023.
45. ^ ULFAT AZIZ-US-SAMAD (2003). Islam & Christianity. islambasics. Accessed 9 April 2023.
46. ^ "RELIGION IN INDIA: TOLERANCE AND SEGREGATION" Pew Research Center. Accessed 9 April 2023.
47. ^ The Catechism of the Catholic Church. Vatican. ¶ 2708. Retrieved 6 January 2021.
48. ISBN 0-521-64561-1
49. ^ Hori 1999, p. 47. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHori1999 (help)
50. Prentice-Hall
    , 1966, pp. 68, 79
51. ^ "Gestures of Worship: Relearning Our Ritual Language" catholicculture. Accessed 9 April 2023.
52. Prentice-Hall
    , 1966, pp. 114, 116–19
53. Prentice-Hall
    , 1966, pp. 126–27
54. ^ Sharf, Robert H. (2000). "The rhetoric of experience and the study of religion". Journal of Consciousness Studies. 7: 267–287.
55. ^ Carrithers 1983, p. 18. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCarrithers1983 (help)
56. ^ Sekida 1985, pp. 196–97. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSekida1985 (help)
57. ^ Sekida 1985, p. 251. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSekida1985 (help)
58. ^ McMahan 2008. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMcMahan2008 (help)
59. hdl:2027.42/43810
    . Retrieved 28 March 2022.
60. ^ Mohr 2000, pp. 282–86. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMohr2000 (help)
61. ^ Low 2006, p. 12. sfn error: no target: CITEREFLow2006 (help)
62. ^ Sharf 1995.
63. ^ Hori 1994, p. 30. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHori1994 (help)
64. ^ Samy 1998, p. 82. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSamy1998 (help)
65. ^ Mohr 2000, p. 282. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMohr2000 (help)
66. ^ Samy 1998, pp. 80–82. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSamy1998 (help)
67. ^ Samy 1998, p. 80. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSamy1998 (help)
68. ^ "A Point Of View: The doors of perception". BBC News. 26 May 2013. Retrieved 28 March 2022.
69. ^ Mohr 2000, p. 284. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMohr2000 (help)
70. ^ "Gen. 25: 21". Biblegateway.com. Retrieved August 26, 2012.
71. ^ "Num. 11:2". Biblegateway.com. Retrieved August 26, 2012.
72. ^ "1 Samuel 8:6". Biblegateway.com. Retrieved August 26, 2012.
73. ^ "Job. 42:10". Biblegateway.com. Retrieved August 26, 2012.
74. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia, "Prayer," http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=496&letter=P
75. ^ Colossians 4:2; 1 Thessalonians 5:17
76. ^ 1 Corinthians 7:5
77. ^ Matthew 6:6
78. ^ Matthew 7:7–11; Matthew 9:24–29; Luke 11:13
79. ^ James 4:2
80. ^ Mark 16:17–18; Matthew 10:8
81. ^ 1 Thessalonians 5:17
82. ^ Weil, Steven (September 14, 2010), "Why Tefilah Doesn't Mean Prayer: Redefining our Relationship with G-d", ou.org (video presentation), Orthodox Union
83. ^ Silberberg, Naftali (n.d.), "Jewish Practice " Mitzvahs & Traditions " Prayer " Insights – Talking With G‑d", Chabad.org
84. ^ The Kabbalah of Prayer on Chabad.org
85. ^ Matthew 6:9–13
86. ^
    ISBN 0-435-30324-4
    p. 108
87. ISBN 978-1-101-16042-8
    . Hippolytus in the Apostolic Tradition directed that Christians should pray seven times a day - on rising, at the lighting of the evening lamp, at bedtime, at midnight, and also, if at home, at the third, sixth and ninth hours of the day, being hours associated with Christ's Passion. Prayers at the third, sixth, and ninth hours are similarly mentioned by Tertullian, Cyprian, Clement of Alexandria and Origen, and must have been very widely practised. These prayers were commonly associated with private Bible reading in the family.
88. ISBN 978-0-567-16561-9
    . Not only the content of early Christian prayer was rooted in Jewish tradition; its daily structure too initially followed a Jewish pattern, with prayer times in the early morning, at noon and in the evening. Later (in the course of the second century), this pattern combined with another one; namely prayer times in the evening, at midnight and in the morning. As a result seven 'hours of prayer' emerged, which later became the monastic 'hours' and are still treated as 'standard' prayer times in many churches today. They are roughly equivalent to midnight, 6 a.m., 9 a.m., noon, 3 p.m., 6 p.m. and 9 p.m. Prayer positions included prostration, kneeling and standing. ... Crosses made of wood or stone, or painted on walls or laid out as mosaics, were also in use, at first not directly as objections of veneration but in order to 'orientate' the direction of prayer (i.e. towards the east, Latin oriens).
89. ^ Kurian, Jake. ""Seven Times a Day I Praise You" – The Shehimo Prayers". Diocese of South-West America of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church. Retrieved 2 August 2020.
90. ^ Mary Cecil, 2nd Baroness Amherst of Hackney (1906). A Sketch of Egyptian History from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Methuen. p. 399. Prayers 7 times a day are enjoined, and the most strict among the Copts recite one of more of the Psalms of David each time they pray. They always wash their hands and faces before devotions, and turn to the East.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
91. doi:10.1075/jhp.2.1.05taa
    .
92. ISBN 9781620329887
    . The Roman Catholic and English Methodist churches both pray for the dead. Their consensus statement confirms that "over the centuries in the Catholic tradition praying for the dead has developed into a variety of practices, especially through the Mass. ...The Methodist church ... has prayers for the dead. ...Methodists who pray for the dead thereby commend them to the continuing mercy of God.
93. ISBN 978-0-7188-4599-5
    . The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America remembers the faithful departed in the Prayers of the People every Sunday, including those who have recently died and those commemorated on the church calendar of saints.
94. ^
    ISBN 978-0-8308-3383-2
    . Luther instructed his followers to make the sign of the cross at both the beginning and end of the day as a beginning to daily prayers. In the Small Catechism, the section on morning and evening prayers, Luther says: "When you get out of bed, bless yourself with the holy cross and say, 'In the name of God, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. Amen.'" This same instruction is given for bedtime.
95. ^ See John 16:23, 26; John 14:13; John 15:16
96. ISBN 0-631-23203-6
    p. 230
97. ^ Slater, Thomas (1911). "Reparation" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 12. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
98. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed, 1989
99. ^ "Library – Religion – Christianity – Pentecostalism". Australian Broadcasting Company. Archived from the original on 2014-11-04.
100. ^ Acts 2:1–13
101. ^ Acts 10:45–47
102. ^ George Barton Cutten, Speaking with Tongues Historically and Psychologically Considered, Yale University Press, 1927.
103. ^ Goodman, Felicitas D., Speaking in Tongues: A Cross-Cultural Study in Glossolalia. University of Chicago Press, 1972.
104. ^ Hine, Virginia H.: 'Pentecostal Glossolalia toward a Functional Interpretation.' Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 8, 2: (1969) 211–26: quote on p. 211
105. ^ Samarin, William J., Tongues of Men and Angels: The Religious Language of Pentecostalism. Macmillan, New York, 1972, quote on p. 73
106. ^ Hine, Virginia H.: 'Pentecostal Glossolalia toward a Functional Interpretation.' Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 8, 2: (1969) 211–26: quote on p. 213
107. ^ Spanos, Nicholas P.; Hewitt, Erin C.: Glossolalia: 'A test of the 'trance' and psychopathology hypotheses.' Journal of Abnormal Psychology: 1979 Aug Vol 88(4) 427–34.
108. ^ Mary Baker Eddy, "Prayer," in Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, Boston, Trustees Under the Will of Mary Baker Eddy, 1934 [etc.] pp. 1–17
109. ^ "Is there no intercessory prayer?". Archived from the original on 1999-08-30. Retrieved 2007-10-13.
110. ISBN 9780674033764
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111. ISBN 978-0-19-974567-8
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112. ^ Muslim cultures today: a reference guide By Kathryn M. Coughlin, p. 91
113. ^ Why do we the Shia pray at three times while the Quran tells us to pray at five times? islamquest.net Retrieved 19 Oct 2018
114. ^
     ISBN 978-1-59333-621-9
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115. OCLC 65198443
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116. ^ ^{a b} Drower, E. S. (1959). The Canonical Prayerbook of the Mandaeans. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
117. ^ Lidzbarski, Mark. 1920. Mandäische Liturgien. Abhandlungen der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, phil.-hist. Klasse, NF 17.1. Berlin.
118. ^ Drower, Ethel Stefana. 1937. The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran. Oxford At The Clarendon Press.
119. ISBN 978-1-85168-184-6
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120. ^ Souter A. (1919). Tertullian’s Treatises: Concerning Prayer, Concerning Baptism SPCK; Macmillan Co. Retrieved 9 April 2023.
121. ^ Muzammil H. Siddiqi (20 December 2022) "How Does Islam View Baptism?" aboutislam.net. Accessed 9 April 2023.
122. ^ Aitareya Brahmana 5.32, Arthur Berriedale Keith, The Aitareya and Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇas of the Rigveda. Harvard University Press, 1920, p. 256.
123. ISBN 978-0-521-39726-1
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124. ISBN 978-0-904766-65-3
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125. ^ "Buddhist Prayers".
126. ISBN 0-19-860560-9
127. ^
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128. ^ Smith and Novak (2003) state that "Pure Land Buddhism has entered America almost exclusively from Japan, and the church Shinran founded is the largest Pure Land presence on this continent" (p. 193).
129. ^ This quotation is Smith and Novak's paraphrase of Shinran's teaching.
130. ISBN 978-1-283-49986-6
131. ISBN 9780826430656
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132. ^ "Ardas", sgpc.net, Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee, archived from the original on 2006-08-06
133. ^ "Learn and recite the Holy Ardas", sgpc.net, Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee
134. ^ "BBC - Religions - Zoroastrian: Worship". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2021-01-02.
135. ^ "Zoroastrian Worship, Eternal Flame, Prayer". www.heritageinstitute.com. Retrieved 2021-01-02.
136. ^ The Wiccan Prayer Book: Daily, Mark Ventimiglia (2006).
137. ^ Palmer, Susan J., Aliens Adored. Rutgers University Press, 2004
138. ^ Raël, Sensual Meditation. Tagman Press, 2002.
139. ^ Eckankar: Ancient Wisdom for Today. p. 20, 1995
140. ISBN 1-57863-299-4
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141. ^ Hessle, Erwin. "The Point of View of the Sun". Erwin Hessle. Retrieved 2019-04-09.
142. ^ K. Masters, G. Spielmans, J. Goodson "Are there demonstrable effects of distant intercessory prayer? A meta-analytic review." Annals of Behavioral Medicine 2006 Aug 32(1):21–26. [1]
143. S2CID 43547918
144. ^ ^{a b} Saletan, William (April 2006), "The Deity in the Data: What the latest prayer study tells us about God", Slate
145. ^
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146. ^
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149. ^
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150. ^ ^{a b} Posner, Gary P. (Spring 1990), "God in the CCU? A critique of the San Francisco hospital study on intercessory prayer and healing", Free Inquiry. Online reprint by Internet Infidels at Infidels.org. Archived from the original on September 23, 2023.
151. ^ "Pell adamant prayer cures cancer". The Age. Melbourne. 2009-12-21.
152. S2CID 254179534
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153. ^ Anonymous (July 20, 2005), "Skeptico – Prayer still useless", skeptico.blogs.com (blog), archived from the original on 2014-11-04
154. ^ Tessman I and Tessman J "Efficacy of Prayer: A Critical Examination of Claims," Skeptical Inquirer, March/April 2000,
155. PMID 11751349
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156. PMID 11761499
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157. S2CID 18281837
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158. ^ Mind and Spirit Archived 2009-02-01 at the Wayback Machine. from the Health Library section of CentraState Healthcare System. Accessed May 18, 2006.
159. ^ Newberg, Andrew. Interviewed by Barbra Bradley Hagerty. "Prayer May Re-Shape Your Brain". www.npr.org "All Things Considered." 20 May 2009. National Public Radio. Web. 30 June 2010. https://www.npr.org/2009/05/20/104310443/prayer-may-reshape-your-brain-and-your-reality
160. ISBN 978-1453538661
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162. ^ "The Columbia University Study flawed and fraud". Skeptical Inquirer, September/October 2004. September 2004. Retrieved 2021-01-08.
163. ^ "Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use in the United States". Archived from the original on 2004-10-18. Retrieved 2004-06-18.

External links

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