Jewish history
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Jewish history is the history of the Jews, their nation, religion, and culture, as it developed and interacted with other peoples, religions, and cultures.
Jews originated from the Israelites and Hebrews of historical Israel and Judah, two related kingdoms that emerged in the Levant during the Iron Age.[1][2] Although the earliest mention of Israel is inscribed on the Merneptah Stele around 1213–1203 BCE, religious literature tells the story of Israelites going back at least as far as c. 1500 BCE. The Kingdom of Israel fell to the Neo-Assyrian Empire in around 720 BCE,[3] and the Kingdom of Judah to the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 586 BCE.[4] Part of the Judean population was exiled to Babylon. The Assyrian and Babylonian captivities are regarded as representing the start of the Jewish diaspora.
After the
In the 19th century, when Jews in Western Europe were increasingly granted equality before the law, Jews in the Pale of Settlement faced growing persecution, legal restrictions and widespread pogroms. During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to Ottoman Syria with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in Palestine. The Zionist movement was officially founded in 1897. The pogroms also triggered a mass exodus of more than two million Jews to the United States between 1881 and 1924.[15] The Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. Among those generally considered the most famous were Albert Einstein and Ludwig Wittgenstein. Many Nobel Prize winners at this time were Jewish, as is still the case.[16]
In 1933, with the rise to power of
Before and during the Holocaust, enormous numbers of Jews immigrated to Mandatory Palestine. On May 14, 1948, upon the termination of the British Mandate,
Time periods in Jewish history
The history of the Jews and Judaism can be divided into five periods:
(1) ancient Israel before Judaism, from the beginnings to 586 BCE;
(2) the beginning of Judaism in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE;[clarification needed]
(3) the formation of rabbinic Judaism after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE;
(4) the age of rabbinic Judaism, from the ascension of
(5), the age of diverse Judaisms, from the French and American Revolutions to the present.[17]
Ancient Israel (1500–586 BCE)
The early Israelites
The history of the early Jews, and their neighbors, centers on the
The earliest recorded evidence of a people by the name of Israel appears in the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt, dated to about 1200 BCE. According to the modern archaeological account, the Israelites and their culture branched out of the Canaanite peoples and their cultures through the development of a distinct monolatristic—and later monotheistic—religion centred on the national god Yahweh.[18][19][20] They spoke an archaic form of the Hebrew language, known today as Biblical Hebrew.[21]
The traditional religious view of Jews and Judaism of their own history was based on the narrative of the ancient Hebrew Bible. In this view Abraham signifying that he is both the biological progenitor of the Jews and the father of Judaism, the first Jew.[22] Later, Isaac was born to Abraham, and Jacob was born to Isaac. Following a struggle with an angel, Jacob was given the name Israel. Following a severe drought, Jacob and his twelve sons fled to Egypt, where they eventually formed the Twelve Tribes of Israel. The Israelites were later led out of slavery in Egypt and subsequently brought to Canaan by Moses; they eventually conquered Canaan under the leadership of Joshua.
Modern scholars agree that the Bible does not provide an authentic account of the Israelites' origins; the consensus supports that the archaeological evidence showing largely indigenous origins of Israel in Canaan, not Egypt, is "overwhelming" and leaves "no room for an Exodus from Egypt or a 40-year pilgrimage through the Sinai wilderness".[23] Many archaeologists have abandoned the archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus as "a fruitless pursuit".[23] A century of research by archaeologists and Egyptologists has arguably found no evidence that can be directly related to the Exodus narrative of an Egyptian captivity and the escape and travels through the wilderness, leading to the suggestion that Iron Age Israel—the kingdoms of Judah and Israel—has its origins in Canaan, not in Egypt:[24][25] The culture of the earliest Israelite settlements is Canaanite, their cult-objects are those of the Canaanite god El, the pottery remains in the local Canaanite tradition, and the alphabet used is early Canaanite. Almost the sole marker distinguishing the "Israelite" villages from Canaanite sites is an absence of pig bones, although whether this can be taken as an ethnic marker or is due to other factors remains a matter of dispute.[26] However, it is accepted that this narrative does have a "historical core" to it.[27][28][29]
According to the
The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah
Two Israelite kingdoms emerged during the Iron Age II:
Biblical tradition tells that the Israelite monarchy was established in 1037 BCE under
The Kingdom of Israel was the more prosperous of the two kingdoms and soon developed into a regional power.
The Kingdom of Judah, with its capital in Jerusalem, controlled the Judaean Mountains, the Shephelah, the Judaean Desert and parts of the Negev. After the fall of Israel, Judah became a client state of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. In the 7th century BCE, the kingdom's population increased greatly, prospering under Assyrian vassalage, despite Hezekiah's revolt against the Assyrian king Sennacherib.[40]
With the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 605 BCE, competition emerged between
Large parts of the Hebrew Bible were written during this period. This include the earliest portions of
The Babylonian captivity (c. 587–538 BCE)
The first Judahite communities in Babylonia started with the exile of the Tribe of Judah to Babylon by
The Jews established
After a few generations and with the conquest of Babylonia in 540 BCE by the Persian Empire, some adherents led by prophets Ezra and Nehemiah, returned to their homeland and traditional practices.[citation needed] Other Judeans[57] did not return.
Deuteronomy was expanded and earlier scriptures were edited during the exilic period. The first edition of Jeremiah, the Book of Ezekiel, the majority of Obadiah, and what is referred to in research as "Second Isaiah" were all written during this time period as well.
The Second Temple period
The Persian period (c. 538–332 BCE)
Following their return to Jerusalem after the return from the exile, and with Persian approval and financing, construction of the Second Temple was completed in 516 BCE under the leadership of the last three Jewish Prophets Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi.
The final Torah is widely seen as a product of the
After the death of the last Jewish prophet and while still under Persian rule, the leadership of the
The Hellenistic period (c. 332–110 BCE)
In 332 BCE,
The Alexandrian conquests spread Greek culture to the Levant. During this time, currents of Judaism were influenced by
The Hasmonean Kingdom (110–63 BCE)
A deterioration of relations between Hellenized Jews and other Jews led the Seleucid king
The Roman period (63 BCE – 135 CE)
Judea had been an independent Jewish kingdom under the
The diaspora
The
Many of the Judaean Jews were sold into slavery while others became citizens of other parts of the Roman Empire.[citation needed] The book of Acts in the New Testament, as well as other Pauline texts, make frequent reference to the large populations of Hellenised Jews in the cities of the Roman world. These Hellenised Jews were affected by the diaspora only in its spiritual sense, absorbing the feeling of loss and homelessness that became a cornerstone of the Jewish creed, much supported by persecutions in various parts of the world.
Of critical importance to the reshaping of Jewish tradition from the Temple-based religion to the rabbinic traditions of the Diaspora, was the development of the interpretations of the Torah found in the Mishnah and Talmud.
The diaspora community in India
Cochin Jewish tradition holds that the roots of their community go back to the arrival of Jews at
Late antiquity
The Jews of Judaea
The relations of the Jews with the Roman Empire in the region continued to be complicated.
In 438 CE, when the Empress Eudocia removed the ban on Jews' praying at the Temple site, the heads of the Community in Galilee issued a call "to the great and mighty people of the Jews" which began: "Know that the end of the exile of our people has come!" However, the Christian population of the city, who saw this as a threat to their primacy, did not allow it and a riot erupted after which they chased away the Jews from the city.[69][70]
During the 5th and the 6th centuries, a series of
In the belief of restoration to come, in the early 7th century the Jews made an
The Jews of pre-Muslim Babylonia (219–638 CE)
After the fall of Jerusalem,
These Talmudic
For the Jews of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the yeshivot of Babylonia served much the same function as the ancient
One of principal seats of Babylonian Judaism was Nehardea, which was then a very large city made up mostly of Jews.[52] A very ancient synagogue, built, it was believed, by King Jehoiachin, existed in Nehardea. At Huzal, near Nehardea, there was another synagogue, not far from which could be seen the ruins of Ezra's academy. In the period before Hadrian, Akiba, on his arrival at Nehardea on a mission from the Sanhedrin, entered into a discussion with a resident scholar on a point of matrimonial law (Mishnah Yeb., end). At the same time there was at Nisibis (northern Mesopotamia), an excellent Jewish college, at the head of which stood Judah ben Bathyra, and in which many Judean scholars found refuge at the time of the persecutions. A certain temporary importance was also attained by a school at Nehar-Pekod, founded by the Judean immigrant Hananiah, nephew of Joshua ben Hananiah, which school might have been the cause of a schism between the Jews of Babylonia and those of Judea-Israel, had not the Judean authorities promptly checked Hananiah's ambition.
The Byzantine period (324–638 CE)
Jews were also widespread throughout the Roman Empire, and this carried on to a lesser extent in the period of Byzantine rule in the central and eastern Mediterranean. The militant and exclusive Christianity and caesaropapism of the Byzantine Empire did not treat Jews well, and the condition and influence of diaspora Jews in the Empire declined dramatically.
It was official Christian policy to convert Jews to Christianity, and the Christian leadership used the official power of Rome in their attempts. In 351 CE the Jews revolted against the added pressures of their Governor, Constantius Gallus. Gallus put down the revolt and destroyed the major cities in the Galilee area where the revolt had started. Tzippori and Lydda (site of two of the major legal academies) never recovered.
In this period, the Nasi in Tiberias,
The Jews of Judea received a brief respite from official persecution during the rule of the Emperor
In the beginning of the 5th century, the
Justinian and his successors had concerns outside the province of Judea, and he had insufficient troops to enforce these regulations. As a result, the 5th century was a period when a wave of new synagogues were built, many with beautiful mosaic floors. Jews adopted the rich art forms of the Byzantine culture. Jewish mosaics of the period portray people, animals, menorahs, zodiacs, and Biblical characters. Excellent examples of these synagogue floors have been found at Beit Alpha (which includes the scene of Abraham sacrificing a ram instead of his son Isaac along with a zodiac), Tiberius, Beit Shean, and Tzippori.
The precarious existence of Jews under Byzantine rule did not long endure, largely due to the explosion of the Muslim religion out of the remote Arabian peninsula (where large populations of Jews resided, see
The size of the Jewish community in the Byzantine Empire was not affected by attempts by some emperors (most notably Justinian) to forcibly convert the Jews of Anatolia to Christianity, as these attempts met with very little success.
Perhaps in the 4th century, the
-
Mosaic of Menorah with Lulav and Ethrog, 6th century CE Brooklyn Museum
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Mosaic pavement of a synagogue atBeit Alpha(5th century)
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Mosaic in the Tzippori Synagogue (5th century)
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Mosaic pavement recovered from the Hamat Gader synagogue (5th or 6th century)
The Medieval period
The Islamic period (638–1099)
In 638 CE the Byzantine Empire lost control of the Levant. The Arab
According to the Arab geographer
During this time Jews lived in thriving communities all across ancient Babylonia. In the Geonic period (650–1250 CE), the Babylonian Yeshiva Academies were the chief centers of Jewish learning; the Geonim (meaning either "Splendor" or "Geniuses"), who were the heads of these schools, were recognized as the highest authorities in Jewish law.
In the 7th century, the new Muslim rulers institute the
The Jewish Golden Age in early Muslim Spain (711–1031)
The golden age of Jewish culture in Spain coincided with the Middle Ages in Europe, a period of Muslim rule throughout much of the Iberian Peninsula. During that time, Jews were generally accepted in society and Jewish religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed.
A period of tolerance thus dawned for the Jews of the
Generally, the Jewish people were allowed to practice their religion and live according to the laws and scriptures of their community. Furthermore, the restrictions to which they were subject were social and symbolic rather than tangible and practical in character. That is to say, these regulations served to define the relationship between the two communities, and not to oppress the Jewish population.[88]
'Abd al-Rahman's court physician and minister was Hasdai ben Isaac ibn Shaprut, the patron of Menahem ben Saruq, Dunash ben Labrat, and other Jewish scholars and poets. Jewish thought during this period flourished under famous figures such as Samuel Ha-Nagid, Moses ibn Ezra, Solomon ibn Gabirol
The Golden Age ended with the invasion of al-Andalus by the
The Crusaders period (1099–1260)
Sermonical messages to avenge the death of Jesus encouraged Christians to participate in the Crusades. The twelfth century Jewish narration from R. Solomon ben Samson records that crusaders en route to the Holy Land decided that before combating the Ishmaelites they would massacre the Jews residing in their midst to avenge the
Crusading attacks were made upon Jews in the territory around Heidelberg. A huge loss of Jewish life took place. Many were forcibly converted to Christianity and many committed suicide to avoid baptism. A major driving factor behind the choice to commit suicide was the Jewish realisation that upon being slain their children could be taken to be raised as Christians. The Jews were living in the middle of Christian lands and felt this danger acutely.[90] This massacre is seen as the first in a sequence of antisemitic events which culminated in the Holocaust.[91] Jewish populations felt that they had been abandoned by their Christian neighbors and rulers during the massacres and lost faith in all promises and charters.[92]
Many Jews chose self-defence. But their means of self-defence were limited and their casualties only increased. Most of the forced conversions proved ineffective. Many Jews reverted to their original faith later. The pope protested this but Emperor Henry IV agreed to permitting these reversions.[89] The massacres began a new epoch for Jewry in Christendom. The Jews had preserved their faith from social pressure, now they had to preserve it at sword point. The massacres during the crusades strengthened Jewry from within spiritually. The Jewish perspective was that their struggle was Israel's struggle to hallow the name of God.[93]
In 1099, Jews helped the Arabs to defend Jerusalem against the
During this period, the Masoretes of Tiberias established the niqqud, a system of diacritical signs used to represent vowels or distinguish between alternative pronunciations of letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Numerous piyutim and midrashim were recorded in Palestine at this time.[83]
Maimonides wrote that in 1165 he visited Jerusalem and went to the Temple Mount, where he prayed in the "great, holy house".[94] Maimonides established a yearly holiday for himself and his sons, the 6th of Cheshvan, commemorating the day he went up to pray on the Temple Mount, and another, the 9th of Cheshvan, commemorating the day he merited to pray at the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron.
In 1141
The Mamluk period (1260–1517)
Yechiel had
Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East
During the Middle Ages, Jews were generally better treated by Islamic rulers than Christian ones. Despite second-class citizenship, Jews played prominent roles in Muslim courts, and experienced a Golden Age in
During the 11th century, Muslims in Spain conducted pogroms against the Jews; those occurred in Cordoba in 1011 and in
Europe
According to the American writer
Jewish populations have existed in Europe, especially in the area of the former Roman Empire, from very early times. As Jewish males had emigrated, some sometimes took wives from local populations, as is shown by the various
The historian Norman Cantor and other 20th-century scholars dispute the tradition that the Middle Ages was a uniformly difficult time for Jews. Before the Church became fully organized as an institution with an increasing array of rules, early medieval society was tolerant. Between 800 and 1100, an estimated 1.5 million Jews lived in Christian Europe. As they were not Christians, they were not included as a division of the feudal system of clergy, knights and serfs. This means that they did not have to satisfy the oppressive demands for labor and military conscription that Christian commoners suffered. In relations with the Christian society, the Jews were protected by kings, princes and bishops, because of the crucial services they provided in three areas: finance, administration and medicine.[106] The lack of political strengths did leave Jews vulnerable to exploitation through extreme taxation.[107]
Christian scholars interested in the Bible consulted with Talmudic rabbis. As the Roman Catholic Church strengthened as an institution, the Franciscan and Dominican preaching orders were founded, and there was a rise of competitive middle-class, town-dwelling Christians. By 1300, the friars and local priests staged the Passion Plays during Holy Week, which depicted Jews (in contemporary dress) killing Christ, according to Gospel accounts. From this period, persecution of Jews and deportations became endemic. Around 1500, Jews found relative security and a renewal of prosperity in present-day Poland.[106]
After 1300, Jews suffered more discrimination and persecution in Christian Europe. Europe's Jewry was mainly urban and literate. The Christians were inclined to regard Jews as obstinate deniers of the truth because in their view the Jews were expected to know of the truth of the Christian doctrines from their knowledge of the Jewish scriptures. Jews were aware of the pressure to accept Christianity.[108] As Catholics were forbidden by the church to loan money for interest, some Jews became prominent moneylenders. Christian rulers gradually saw the advantage of having such a class of people who could supply capital for their use without being liable to excommunication. As a result, the money trade of western Europe became a specialty of the Jews. But, in almost every instance when Jews acquired large amounts through banking transactions, during their lives or upon their deaths, the king would take it over.[109] Jews became imperial "servi cameræ", the property of the King, who might present them and their possessions to princes or cities.
Jews were frequently massacred and exiled from various European countries. The persecution hit its first peak during the Crusades. In the People's Crusade (1096) flourishing Jewish communities on the Rhine and the Danube were utterly destroyed. In the Second Crusade (1147) the Jews in France were subject to frequent massacres. They were also subjected to attacks by the Shepherds' Crusades of 1251 and 1320. The Crusades were followed by massive expulsions, including the expulsion of the Jews from England in 1290;[110] in 1396 100,000 Jews were expelled from France; and in 1421, thousands were expelled from Austria. Over this time many Jews in Europe, either fleeing or being expelled, migrated to Poland, where they prospered into another Golden Age.
In Italy, Jews were allowed to live in Venice but were required to live in a ghetto, and the practice spread across Italy (see Cum nimis absurdum) and was adopted in many places in Catholic Europe. Jews outside the Ghetto often had to wear a yellow star.[111][112]
Expulsions of the Jews of Spain and Portugal
Significant repression of Spain's numerous community occurred during the 14th century, notably a
As a result, an estimated 50,000 to 70,000 Jews left Spain, the remainder joining Spain's already numerous Converso community. Perhaps a quarter of a million Conversos thus were gradually absorbed by the dominant Catholic culture, although those among them who secretly practiced Judaism were subject to 40 years of intense repression by the Spanish Inquisition. This was particularly the case up until 1530, after which the trials of Conversos by the Inquisition dropped to 3% of the total. Similar expulsions of Sephardic Jews occurred 1493 in Sicily (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Spanish Jews fled mainly to the Ottoman Empire and North Africa and Portugal. A small number also settled in Holland and England.
The expulsion followed a long process of expulsions and bans from what are now England, France, Germany, Austria, and Holland. In January 1492, the last Muslim state was defeated in Spain and six months later the Jews of Spain (the largest community in the world) were required to convert or leave without their property. 100,000 converted with many continuing to secretly practice Judaism, for which the Catholic church's inquisition (led by Torquemada) now mandated a sentence of death by public burning. 175,000 left Spain.[114]
Many
The Early Modern period
Historians who study modern Jewry have identified four different paths by which European Jews were "modernized" and thus integrated into the mainstream of European society. A common approach has been to view the process through the lens of the European Enlightenment as Jews faced the promise and the challenges posed by political emancipation. Scholars that use this approach have focused on two social types as paradigms for the decline of Jewish tradition and as agents of the sea changes in Jewish culture that led to the collapse of the ghetto. The first of these two social types is the Court Jew who is portrayed as a forerunner of the modern Jew, having achieved integration with and participation in the proto-capitalist economy and court society of central European states such as the Habsburg Empire. In contrast to the cosmopolitan Court Jew, the second social type presented by historians of modern Jewry is the maskil, (learned person), a proponent of the Haskalah (Enlightenment). This narrative sees the maskil's pursuit of secular scholarship and his rationalistic critiques of rabbinic tradition as laying a durable intellectual foundation for the secularization of Jewish society and culture. The established paradigm has been one in which Ashkenazic Jews entered modernity through a self-conscious process of westernization led by "highly atypical, Germanized Jewish intellectuals". Haskalah gave birth to the Reform and Conservative movements and planted the seeds of Zionism while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided.[116] At around the same time that Haskalah was developing, Hasidic Judaism was spreading as a movement that preached a world view almost opposed to the Haskalah.
In the 1990s, the concept of the "Port Jew" has been suggested as an "alternate path to modernity" that was distinct from the European Haskalah. In contrast to the focus on Ashkenazic Germanized Jews, the concept of the Port Jew focused on the Sephardi conversos who fled the Inquisition and resettled in European port towns on the coast of the Mediterranean, the Atlantic and the Eastern seaboard of the United States.[117]
Court Jews
Examples of what would be later called court Jews emerged when local rulers used services of Jewish bankers for short-term loans. They lent money to nobles and in the process gained social influence. Noble patrons of court Jews employed them as
From medieval times, court Jews could amass personal fortunes and gained political and social influence. Sometimes they were also prominent people in the local Jewish community and could use their influence to protect and influence their brethren. Sometimes they were the only Jews who could interact with the local high society and present petitions of the Jews to the ruler. However, the court Jew had social connections and influence in the Christian world mainly through his Christian patrons. Due to the precarious position of Jews, some nobles could just ignore their debts. If the sponsoring noble died, his Jewish financier could face exile or execution.[citation needed]
Port Jews
The
From the 16th to the 18th century, Jewish merchants dominated the chocolate and vanilla trade, exporting to Jewish centers across Europe, mainly Amsterdam, Bayonne, Bordeaux, Hamburg and Livorno.[119]
The Ottoman Empire
During the Classical Ottoman period (1300–1600), the Jews, together with most other communities of the empire, enjoyed a certain level of prosperity. Compared with other Ottoman subjects, they were the predominant power in commerce and trade as well in diplomacy and other high offices. In the 16th century especially, the Jews were the most prominent under the millets, the apogee of Jewish influence could arguably be the appointment of
At the time of the
Jews lived in the geographic area of Asia Minor (modern Turkey, but more geographically either Anatolia or Asia Minor) for more than 2,400 years. Initial prosperity in Hellenistic times had faded under Christian Byzantine rule, but recovered somewhat under the rule of the various Muslim governments that displaced and succeeded rule from Constantinople. For much of the Ottoman period, Turkey was a safe haven for Jews fleeing persecution, and it continues to have a small Jewish population today. The situation where Jews both enjoyed cultural and economical prosperity at times but were widely persecuted at other times was summarised by G.E. Von Grunebaum :
It would not be difficult to put together the names of a very sizeable number of Jewish subjects or citizens of the Islamic area who have attained to high rank, to power, to great financial influence, to significant and recognized intellectual attainment; and the same could be done for Christians. But it would again not be difficult to compile a lengthy list of persecutions, arbitrary confiscations, attempted forced conversions, or pogroms.[121]
Poland
In the 17th century, there were many significant Jewish populations in
With the Partitions of Poland in the late 18th century, the Polish-Jewish population was split between the Russian Empire, Austria-Hungary, and German Prussia, which divided Poland among themselves.
The European Enlightenment and the Haskalah (18th century)
During the period of the
At the same time, the outside world was changing, and debates began over the potential emancipation of the Jews (granting them equal rights). The first country to do so was France, during the
We must refuse everything to the Jews as a nation and accord everything to Jews as individuals. We must withdraw recognition from their judges; they should only have our judges. We must refuse legal protection to the maintenance of the so-called laws of their Judaic organization; they should not be allowed to form in the state either a political body or an order. They must be citizens individually. But, some will say to me, they do not want to be citizens. Well then! If they do not want to be citizens, they should say so, and then, we should banish them. It is repugnant to have in the state an association of non-citizens, and a nation within the nation...
Hasidic Judaism
It was founded in 18th-century
The 19th century
Though persecution still existed, emancipation spread throughout Europe in the 19th century. Napoleon invited Jews to leave the Jewish ghettos in Europe and seek refuge in the newly created tolerant political regimes that offered equality under Napoleonic Law (see Napoleon and the Jews). By 1871, with Germany's emancipation of Jews, every European country except Russia had emancipated its Jews.
Despite increasing integration of the Jews with secular society, a new form of
During this period, Jewish migration to the United States (see American Jews) created a large new community mostly freed of the restrictions of Europe. Over 2 million Jews arrived in the United States between 1890 and 1924, most from Russia and Eastern Europe. A similar case occurred in the southern tip of the continent, specifically in the countries of Argentina and Uruguay.
The 20th century
Modern Zionism
During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to
The Zionist movement was officially founded after the Kattowitz convention (1884) and the World Zionist Congress (1897), and it was Theodor Herzl who initiated the struggle to establish a state for the Jews.
After the First World War, it seemed that the conditions which made it possible for the Jews to establish such a state had arrived: The United Kingdom captured Palestine from the Ottoman Empire, and the Jews received the promise of a "National Home" from the British in the form of the Balfour Declaration of 1917, given to Chaim Weizmann.
In 1920, the British Mandate of Palestine was established and the pro-Jewish Herbert Samuel was appointed High Commissioner of Palestine, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem was established and several large Jewish immigration waves to Palestine occurred. The Arab co-inhabitants of Palestine were hostile to increasing Jewish immigration, however, and as a result, they began to express their opposition to the establishment of Jewish settlements and they also began to express their opposition to the pro-Jewish policy of the British government in violent ways.
Arab gangs began to commit violent acts which included the murder of individual Jews, attacks on convoys and attacks on the Jewish population. After the 1920
Major riots occurred during the 1929 Palestine riots and the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine.
Due to the increasing violence, the United Kingdom gradually started to backtrack from its original idea of supporting the establishment of a Jewish homeland and it also started to speculate on a
Meanwhile, the Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. Among those Jews who were generally considered the most famous were the scientist Albert Einstein and the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. At that time, a disproportionate number of Nobel Prize winners were Jewish, as is still the case.[16] In Russia, many Jews were involved in the October Revolution and belonged to the Communist Party.
The Holocaust
In 1933, with
In 1939,
The massive scale of the Holocaust, and the horrors that happened during it, were only understood after the war, and they heavily affected the Jewish nation and world public opinion. Efforts were then increased to establish a Jewish state in Palestine.
The establishment of the State of Israel
History of Israel | |
---|---|
538–333 BCE | |
Hellenistic period | 333–164 BCE |
Hasmonean dynasty | 164–37 BCE |
Herodian dynasty | 37 BCE–6 CE |
Roman Judaea
Jewish-Roman Wars ) | 6 CE–136 CE |
In 1945 the Jewish resistance organizations in Palestine unified and established the Jewish Resistance Movement. The movement began guerilla attacks against Arab paramilitaries and the British authorities.
The Jewish leadership decided to center the struggle in the illegal immigration to Palestine and began organizing a massive number of Jewish war refugees from Europe, without the approval of the British authorities. This immigration contributed a great deal to the Jewish settlements in Israel in the world public opinion and the British authorities decided to let the United Nations decide upon the fate of Palestine.[citation needed]
On November 29, 1947, the
In the middle of the war, after the last British soldiers of the Palestine Mandate left, David Ben-Gurion proclaimed on May 14, 1948, the establishment of a
Since 1948, Israel has been involved in a series of major military conflicts, including the 1956 Suez Crisis, 1967 Six-Day War, 1973 Yom Kippur War, 1982 Lebanon War, and 2006 Lebanon War, as well as a nearly constant series of ongoing minor conflicts.
Since 1977, an ongoing and largely unsuccessful series of diplomatic efforts have been initiated by Israel, Palestinian organisations, their neighbours, and other parties, including the United States and the European Union, to bring about a peace process to resolve conflicts between Israel and its neighbors, mostly over the fate of the Palestinian people.
The 21st century
The
The number of people who identified as Jews in
On October 7, 2023, the militant group
See also
- Crypto-Judaism
- Expulsions and exoduses of Jews
- Genetic studies on Jews
- Historical Jewish population comparisons
- Geography of antisemitism
- History of antisemitism
- History of the Jews during World War II
- Index of Jewish history-related articles
- Jewish diaspora
- Jewish ethnic divisions
- Jewish historiography
- Jewish population by country
- Jewish exodus from the Muslim world
- Jewish question
- Jewish religious movements
- Jewish Science
- Lists of Jews
- Outline of Jewish history
- Persecution of Jews
- Timeline of antisemitism
- Timeline of Jewish history
- Traditional Jewish chronology
Notes
- ^ ISBN 978-0-684-86912-4.
- ^ a b The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995 Archived April 9, 2023, at the Wayback Machine Quote: "For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date."
- ^ ISBN 978-1-84127-201-6. Archivedfrom the original on February 10, 2023. Retrieved August 19, 2022.
- ISBN 978-1-58983-641-9.
- ^ Jonathan Stökl, Caroline Waerzegger (2015). Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. pp. 7–11, 30, 226.
- ^ Encyclopaedia Judaica. Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). p. 27.
- ISBN 978-0-19-518831-8. Archivedfrom the original on April 9, 2023. Retrieved January 16, 2023.
- ISBN 978-0-674-39731-6.
- )
- ISBN 978-0-8028-2416-5. Archivedfrom the original on April 9, 2023. Retrieved January 16, 2023.
- ^ "Heritage: Civilization and the Jews; The Uses of Adversity." Page 87. Eban, Abba Solomon. "Heritage: Civilization and the Jews." Summit Books, A Division of Simon and Schuster, Inc. Syracuse, New York: 1984. Page 87.
- ^ Dosick (2007), pp. 59, 60.
- ^ Mosk (2013), p. 143. "Encouraged to move out of the Holy Roman Empire as persecution of their communities intensified during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Ashkenazi community increasingly gravitated toward Poland."
- ^ Harshav, Benjamin (1999). The Meaning of Yiddish. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 6. "From the fourteenth and certainly by the sixteenth century, the center of European Jewry had shifted to Poland, then ... comprising the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including today's Byelorussia), Crown Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine and stretching, at times, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the approaches to Berlin to a short distance from Moscow."
- ^ Lewin, Rhoda G. (1979). "Stereotype and reality in the Jewish immigrant experience in Minneapolis" (PDF). Minnesota History. 46 (7): 259. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 21, 2020. Retrieved August 10, 2020.
- ^ a b "Jewish Nobel Prize Winners". jinfo.org. Archived from the original on December 24, 2018. Retrieved October 7, 2011.
- ^ Neusner 1992, p. 4.
- ^ Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000 BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's)
- ^ Rendsberg, Gary (2008). "Israel without the Bible". In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5
- ISBN 1-85075-657-0.
- ISBN 978-0-415-05767-7
- ^ Levenson 2012, p. 3.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8028-2126-3. p. 99
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The Biblical account of the origins of the people of Israel (principally recounted in Numbers, Joshua and Judges) often conflicts with non-Biblical textual sources and with the archaeological evidence for the settlement of Canaan in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age. [...] Israel is first textually attested as a political entity in Egyptian texts of the late 13th century BCE and the Egyptologist Donald Redford argues that the Israelites must have been emerging as a distinct group within the Canaanite culture during the century or so prior to this. It has been suggested that the early Israelites were an oppressed rural group of Canaanites who rebelled against the more urbanized coastal Canaanites (Gottwald 1979). Alternatively, it has been argued that the Israelites were survivors of the decline in the fortunes of Canaan who established themselves in the highlands at the end of the late Bronze Age (Ahlstrom 1986: 27). Redford, however, makes a good case for equating the very earliest Israelites with a semi-nomadic people in the highlands of central Palestine whom the Egyptians called Shasu (Redford 1992:2689–80; although see Stager 1985 for strong arguments against the identification with the Shasu). These Shasu were a persistent thorn in the side of the Ramessid pharaohs' empire in Syria-Palestine, well-attested in Egytian texts, but their pastoral lifestyle has left scant traces in the archaeological record. By the end of the 13th century BCE, however, the Shasu/Israelites were beginning to establish small settlements in the uplands, the architecture of which closely resembles contemporary Canaanite villages.
- ISBN 978-1-58983-097-4. Archivedfrom the original on January 17, 2023. Retrieved August 12, 2012.
Much has been made of the scarcity of pig bones at highland sites. Since small quantities of pig bones do appear in Late Bronze Age assemblages, some archaeologists have interpreted this to indicate that the ethnic identity of the highland inhabitants was distinct from Late Bronze Age indigenous peoples (see Finkelstein 1997, 227–230). Brian Hesse and Paula Wapnish (1997) advise caution, however, since the lack of pig bones at Iron I highland settlements could be a result of other factors that have little to do with ethnicity.
- ^ Faust 2015, p.476: "While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt..".
- ^ Redmount 2001, p. 61: "A few authorities have concluded that the core events of the Exodus saga are entirely literary fabrications. But most biblical scholars still subscribe to some variation of the Documentary Hypothesis, and support the basic historicity of the biblical narrative."
- ISBN 3-927120-37-5.
After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible "historical figures" [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.
- S2CID 147053561.
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As this essay will show, however, the premonarchic period long ago became a literary description of the mythological roots, the early beginnings of the nation and the way to describe the right of Israel on its land. The archeological evidence also does not support the existence of a united monarchy under David and Solomon as described in the Bible, so the rubric of "united monarchy" is best abandoned, although it remains useful for discussing how the Bible views the Israelite past. [...] Although the kingdom of Judah is mentioned in some ancient inscriptions, they never suggest that it was part of a unit comprised of Israel and Judah. There are no extrabiblical indications of a united monarchy called "Israel."
- ^ Wright, Jacob L. (July 2014). "David, King of Judah (Not Israel)". The Bible and Interpretation. Archived from the original on March 1, 2021. Retrieved May 15, 2021.
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The Tel Dan inscription generated a good deal of debate and a flurry of articles when it first appeared, but it is now widely regarded (a) as genuine and (b) as referring to the Davidic dynasty and the Aramaic kingdom of Damascus.
- ISBN 978-0-19-971162-8. Archivedfrom the original on April 9, 2023. Retrieved August 19, 2022.
Today, after much further discussion in academic journals, it is accepted by most archaeologists that the inscription is not only genuine but that the reference is indeed to the House of David, thus representing the first allusion found anywhere outside the Bible to the biblical David.
- ISBN 978-1-58983-062-2. Archivedfrom the original on April 9, 2023. Retrieved August 19, 2022.
Some unfounded accusations of forgery have had little or no effect on the scholarly acceptance of this inscription as genuine.
- ^ Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, pp. 146–7:Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming. ... In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power
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Sargon's heir, Sennacherib (705–681), could not deal with Hezekiah's revolt until he gained control of Babylon in 702 BCE.
- ^ "British Museum – Cuneiform tablet with part of the Babylonian Chronicle (605–594 BCE)". Archived from the original on October 30, 2014. Retrieved October 30, 2014.
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- ^ Kelle 2005, p. 9.
- ^ Brettler 2010, pp. 161–62.
- ^ Radine 2010, pp. 71–72.
- ^ Rogerson 2003a, p. 690.
- ^ O'Brien 2002, p. 14.
- ^ Gelston 2003c, p. 715.
- ^ Rogerson 2003b, p. 154.
- ^ Campbell & O'Brien 2000, p. 2 and fn.6.
- ^ Gelston 2003a, p. 710.
- ^ a b c d e f g h מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת "עם ישראל – תולדות 4000 שנה – מימי האבות ועד חוזה השלום", ע"מ 95. (Translation: Mordechai Vermebrand and Betzalel S. Ruth – "The People of Israel – the history of 4000 years – from the days of the Forefathers to the Peace Treaty", 1981, p. 95)
- ^ Codex Judaica, pp. 175–176, Kantor, Zichron Press, NY 2005.
- ISBN 0-8028-6260-8. Retrieved 11 June 2015
- ^ a b c d Solomon Gryazel, History of the Jews: From the destruction of Judah in 586 BCE to the present Arab Israeli conflict, p. 137.
- ^ Codex Judaica, pp. 161–174, Kantor, Zichron Press, NY 2005.
- ^ Jonathan Stökl, Caroline Waerzegger (2015). Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. pp. 7–11, 30, 226.
- ^ Frei 2001, p. 6.
- ^ Romer 2008, p. 2 and fn.3.
- ^ See:
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- Jeff S. Anderson. The Internal Diversification of Second Temple Judaism: An Introduction to the Second Temple Period. University Press of America, 2002. ISBN 978-0-7618-2327-8. pp. 37–38.
- Howard N. Lupovitch. Jews and Judaism in World History. Taylor & Francis. 2009. ISBN 978-0-415-46205-1. pp. 26–30.
- ^ Hooker, Richard. "The Hebrews: The Diaspora". Archived from the original on August 29, 2006. Retrieved April 7, 2018. World Civilizations Learning Modules. Washington State University, 1999.
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- ^ Paul Johnson, A History of the Jews (New York: Harper Perennial, 1988), p. 142.
- ISBN 978-0-520-92072-9pp. 13–14, 17–18
- ^ Bernard Lazare and Robert Wistrich, Antisemitism: Its History and Causes, University of Nebraska Press, 1995, I, pp. 46–47.
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 23.1.2–3.
- ^ See "Julian and the Jews 361–363 CE" Archived May 20, 2012, at the Wayback Machine (Fordham University, The Jesuit University of New York) and "Julian the Apostate and the Holy Temple".
- ISBN 978-0-8386-3660-2. Archivedfrom the original on April 9, 2023. Retrieved August 3, 2022.
- ^ Avraham Yaari, Igrot Eretz Yisrael (Tel Aviv, 1943), p. 46.
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- ISBN 978-90-429-1344-8. Archivedfrom the original on April 9, 2023. Retrieved March 11, 2014.
- ^ [מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס. רותת "עם ישראל – תולדות 4000 שנה – מימי האבות ועד חוזה השלום", ע"מ 97. (Translation: Mordechai Vermebrand and Betzalel S. Ruth The People of Israel: The History of 4,000 Years, from the Days of the Forefathers to the Peace Treaty, 1981, p. 97)
- ^ Wendy Mayer and Pauline Allen, John Chrysostom: The Early Church Fathers (London, 2000), pp. 113, 146.
- ^ Cod., I., v. 12
- ^ Procopius, Historia Arcana, 28
- ^ Nov., cxlvi., Feb. 8, 553
- ^ Procopius, De Aedificiis, vi. 2
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- ^ Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine: 634–1099 pp. 170, 220–221.
- ^ Marina Rustow, Baghdad in the West: Migration and the Making of Medieval Jewish Traditions Archived July 11, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Sephardim Archived September 7, 2012, at the Wayback Machine by Rebecca Weiner.
- ^ Lewis, Bernard W (1984). The Jews of Islam
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- ^ "Hadrat Melech" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 2, 2014. Retrieved April 5, 2010.
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- ^ Maurice Roumani, The Case of the Jews from Arab Countries: A Neglected Issue, 1977, pp. 26–27.
- ^ "Granada". Jewish Encyclopedia. 1906. Archived from the original on April 12, 2021. Retrieved August 12, 2012.
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- ^ "Print of Jews forced to listen to a Christian sermon - Collections Search - United States Holocaust Memorial Museum". collections.ushmm.org. Archived from the original on November 29, 2022. Retrieved March 6, 2023.
- ^ The Jewish-Christian Encounter in Medieval Preaching, Routledge 2015, edited by Jonathan Adams and Jussi Hanska chapter 13, see page 297
- ^ European Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism, 1550-1750 by Jonathan Israel, chapter 1 Exodus from the West (page 25)
- ^ The Jews of Spain by Jane Gerber, Free Press 1994 pp 138 - 144 / Secrecy and Deceit: The Religion of the Crypto-Jews by David Martin Gitlitz, University of New Mexico 2002, pp 75 - 81
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Port Jews were a social type, usually those who were involved in seafaring and maritime trade, who (like Court Jews) could be seen as the earliest modern Jews. Often arriving as refugees from the Inquisition, they were permitted to settle as merchants and allowed to trade openly in places such as Amsterdam, London, Trieste and Hamburg. 'Their Diaspora connections and accumulated expertise lay in exactly the areas of overseas expansion that were then of interest to mercantilist governments.'
- ^ Dubin, The port Jews of Habsburg Trieste: absolutist politics and enlightenment culture, Stanford University Press, 1999, p. 47
- ^ Encyclopedia of Jewish Food, Gil Marks, HMH, 17 Nov 2010
- ^ Charles Issawi & Dmitri Gondicas; Ottoman Greeks in the Age of Nationalism, Princeton, (1999)
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- ^ "Biden calls Hamas attacks the deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust as US death toll ticks up". AP News. October 11, 2023. Retrieved November 9, 2023.
- ^ Al-Mughrabi, Nidal; Angel, Maytaal; Al-Mughrabi, Nidal; Angel, Maytaal (November 8, 2023). "Israeli, Hamas fighters in close combat in Gaza City as civilians flee". Reuters. Retrieved November 9, 2023.
Works cited
- ISBN 978-0-8276-0775-0.
- Campbell, Antony F.; O'Brien, Mark A. (2000). Unfolding the Deuteronomistic History. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1451413687.
- Faust, Avraham (2015). "The Emergence of Iron Age Israel: On Origins and Habitus". In Thomas E. Levy; Thomas Schneider; William H.C. Propp (eds.). Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience. Springer. pp. 467–482. ISBN 978-3-319-04768-3.
- Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6.
- Frei, Peter (2001). "Persian Imperial Authorization: A Summary". In Watts, James (ed.). Persia and Torah: The Theory of Imperial Authorization of the Pentateuch. Atlanta, GA: SBL Press. p. 6. ISBN 9781589830158.
- Gelston, Anthony (2003a). "Habakkuk". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Gelston, Anthony (2003c). "Zephaniah". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Kelle, Brad E. (2005). Hosea 2: Metaphor and Rhetoric in Historical Perspective. Society of Biblical Lit.
- Levenson, Jon Douglas (2012). Inheriting Abraham: the legacy of the patriarch in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-16355-0.
- ISBN 0-8006-2552-8.
- O'Brien, Julia M. (2002). Nahum. A&C Black. ISBN 978-1841273006.
- Radine, Jason (2010). The Book of Amos in Emergent Judah. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3161501142.
- Redmount, Carol A. (2001) [1998]. "Bitter Lives: Israel in and out of Egypt". In ISBN 9780195139372.
- Rogerson, John W. (2003a). "Micah". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Rogerson, John W. (2003b). "Deuteronomy". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802837110.
- Romer, Thomas (2008). "Moses Outside the Torah and the Construction of a Diaspora Identity" (PDF). Journal of Hebrew Scriptures. 8, article 15: 2–12. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2020. Retrieved September 27, 2019.
- ISBN 978-002-865-928-2.
Further reading
- Adler, Yonatan (2022). The Origins of Judaism: An Archaeological-Historical Reappraisal. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-25490-7.
- Albertz, Rainer (1994) [1992]. A History of Israelite Religion. Vol. 1: From the Beginnings to the End of the Monarchy. Translated by John Bowden (Reprint ed.). Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-21846-6.
- Albertz, Rainer (1994) [1992]. A History of Israelite Religion. Vol. 2: From the Exile to the Maccabees. Translated by John Bowden (Reprint ed.). Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-21847-4.
- Allegro, John. The chosen people: A study of Jewish history from the time of the exile until the revolt of Bar Kocheba (Andrews, UK, 2015).
- Alpher, Joseph (1986). Encyclopedia of Jewish history: events and eras of the Jewish people.
- Cohn-Sherbok, Dan. Atlas of Jewish history (Routledge, 2013).
- Fireberg, H., Glöckner, O., & Menachem Zoufalá, M., eds. (2020). Being Jewish in 21st Century Central Europe. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Oldenbourg.
- Friesel, Evyatar. Atlas of modern Jewish history (1990) online free to borrow
- Gilbert, Martin. Atlas of Jewish History (1993) online free to borrow
- Kobrin, Rebecca and Adam Teller, eds. Purchasing Power: The Economics of Modern Jewish History. (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015. viii, 355 pp. Essays by scholars focused on Europe.
- OCLC 30026590.
- Neusner, Jacob; Green, William Scott, eds. (1991). The Origins of Judaism. Religion, History, and Literature in Late Antiquity. 20-volume Set. New York: Garland Press. (Reprinted scholarly essays, with introductions.)
- Neusner, Jacob (1999). The Four Stages of Rabbinic Judaism. London; New York: Routledge.
- Sachar, Howard M. The course of modern Jewish history. (2nd ed. 2013).
- Schloss, Chaim. 2000 Years of Jewish History (2002), Heavily illustrated popular history.
- Scheindlin, Raymond P. A short history of the Jewish people from legendary times to modern statehood (1998) online free to borrow
- ISBN 1-57718-058-5.
- ISBN 978-0-8133-6717-0.
France
- Benbassa, Esther. The Jews of France: A History from Antiquity to the Present (2001) excerpt and text search; online
- Birnbaum, Pierre, and Jane Todd. The Jews of the Republic: A Political History of State Jews in France from Gambetta to Vichy (1996).
- Birnbaum, Pierre; Kochan, Miriam. Anti-Semitism in France: A Political History from Léon Blum to the Present (1992) 317p.
- Cahm, Eric. The Dreyfus affair in French society and politics (Routledge, 2014).
- Debré, Simon. "The Jews of France." Jewish Quarterly Review 3.3 (1891): 367–435. long scholarly description. online free
- Graetz, Michael, and Jane Todd. The Jews in Nineteenth-Century France: From the French Revolution to the Alliance Israelite Universelle (1996)
- Hyman, Paula E. The Jews of Modern France (1998) excerpt and text search
- Hyman, Paula. From Dreyfus to Vichy: The Remaking of French Jewry, 1906–1939 (Columbia UP, 1979). online free to borrow
- Schechter, Ronald. Obstinate Hebrews: Representations of Jews in France, 1715–1815 (Univ of California Press, 2003)
- Taitz, Emily. The Jews of Medieval France: The Community of Champagne (1994) online Archived November 30, 2018, at the Wayback Machine
Russia and Eastern Europe
- Gitelman, Zvi (2001). A Century of Ambivalence: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present.
- Fishman, David (1996). Russia's First Modern Jews. New York University Press.
- Polonsky, Antony. The Jews in Poland and Russia: A Short History (2013)
- Weiner, Miriam; Polish State Archives (in cooperation with) (1997). Jewish Roots in Poland: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories. Secaucus, NJ: Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation. OCLC 38756480.
- Weiner, Miriam; Ukrainian State Archives (in cooperation with); Moldovan National Archives (in cooperation with) (1999). Jewish Roots in Ukraine and Moldova: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories. Secaucus, NJ: Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation. OCLC 607423469.
United States
- Fischel, Jack, and Sanford Pinsker, eds.Jewish-American history and culture : an encyclopedia (1992) online free to borrow
External links
- The Jewish History Resource Center. Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
- The State of Israel The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
- Jewish History and Culture Encyclopaedia Archived December 24, 2008, at the Wayback Machine Official Site of the 22-volume Encyclopaedia Judaica
- Internet Jewish History Sourcebook offering homework help and online texts
- Israelite Religion to Judaism: the Evolution of the Religion of Israel.
- 2000 Years of Jewish History
- Greek Influence on Judaism from the Hellenistic Period Through the Middle Ages c. 300 BCE–1200 CE.
- Jewish Sects of the Second Temple Period.
- The Origin and Nature of the Samaritans and their Relationship to Second Temple Jewish Sects.
- Jewish History Tables.
- Articles on Australian Jewish history.
- Articles on British Jewish history.
- Barnavi, Eli (Ed.). A Historical Atlas of the Jewish People. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 1992. ISBN 978-0-679-40332-6
- Crash Course in Jewish History
- Jewish families in Csicsó – Cicov (Slovakia) until the Holocaust
- "Under the Influence: Hellenism in Ancient Jewish Life" Archived February 29, 2012, at the Wayback Machine Biblical Archaeology Society
- Summary of Jewish History by Berel Wein
- Ancient Hebrew history
- Videos of Jewish History Lectures by Henry Abramson of Touro College South