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Predestination, in theology, is the doctrine that all events have been willed by God, usually with reference to the eventual fate of the individual soul.[1] Explanations of predestination often seek to address the paradox of free will, whereby God's omniscience seems incompatible with human free will. In this usage, predestination can be regarded as a form of religious determinism; and usually predeterminism, also known as theological determinism.
History
Pre-Christian period
Some have argued that the Book of Enoch contains a deterministic worldview that is combined with dualism.[2] The book of Jubilees seems to harmonize or mix together a doctrine of free will and determinism.[3]
Ben Sira affirms free will, where God allows a choice of bad or good before the human and thus they can choose which one to follow.[4]
New Testament period
There is some disagreement among scholars regarding the views on predestination of first-century AD Judaism, out of which Christianity came.[citation needed] Josephus wrote during the first century that the three main Jewish sects differed on this question. He argued that the Essenes and Pharisees argued that God's providence orders all human events, but the Pharisees still maintained that people are able to choose between right and wrong. He wrote that the Sadducees did not have a doctrine of providence.
Biblical scholar
However some in the Qumran community possibly believed in predestination, for example
In the
We know that in everything God works for good with those who love him, who are called according to his purpose. For those whom he foreknew he also predestined to be conformed to the image of his Son, in order that he might be the first-born among many brethren. And those whom he predestined he also called; and those whom he called he also justified; and those whom he justified he also glorified.[9]
Biblical scholars have interpreted this passage in several ways. Many say this only has to do with service, and is not about salvation. The Catholic biblical commentator Brendan Byrne wrote that the predestination mentioned in this passage should be interpreted as applied to the Christian community corporately rather than individuals.
Patristic period
Pre-Nicene period
Origen, writing in the third century, taught that God's providence extends to every individual.[14] He believed God's predestination was based on God's foreknowledge of every individual's merits, whether in their current life or a previous life.[15]
Gill and Gregg Alisson argued that Clement of Rome held to a predestinarian view of salvation.[16][17]
Some verses in the Odes of Solomon, which was made by an Essene convert into Christianity, might possibly suggest a predestinarian worldview, where God chooses who are saved and go into heaven, although there is controversy about what it teaches.[18][19][self-published source][20] The Odes of Solomon talks about God "imprinting a seal on the face of the elect before they existed".[20] The Thomasines saw themselves as children of the light, but the ones who were not part of the elect community were sons of darkness. The Thomasines thus had a belief in a type of election or predestination, they saw themselves as elect because they were born from the light.[20]
Valentinus believed in a form of predestination, in his view humans are born into one of three natures, depending on which elements prevail in the person. In the views of Valentinus, a person born with a bad nature can never be saved because they are too inclined into evil, some people have a nature which is a mixture of good and evil, thus they can choose salvation, and others have a good nature, who will be saved, because they will be inclined into good.[21]
Irenaeus also attacked the doctrine of predestination set out by Valentinus, arguing that it is unfair. For Irenaeus, humans were free to choose salvation or not.[22]
Justin Martyr attacked predestinarian views held by some Greek philosophers.[23]
Post-Nicene period
Later in the fourth and fifth centuries,
Augustine's position raised objections.
The
In the eighth century, John of Damascus emphasized the freedom of the human will in his doctrine of predestination, and argued that acts arising from peoples' wills are not part of God's providence at all. Damascene teaches that people's good actions are done in cooperation with God, but are not caused by him.[31]
Prosper of Aquitaine (390 – c. 455 AD) defended Augustine's view of predestination against semi-Pelagians.[32] Marius Mercator, who was a pupil of Augustine wrote five books against Pelagianism and one book about predestination.[33] Fulgentius of Ruspe and Caesarius of Arles rejected the view that God gives free choice to believe and instead believed in predestination.[34]
Cassian believed that despite predestination being a work that God does, God only decides to predestinate based on how human beings will respond.[35]
Augustine himself stated thus:[36]
And thus Christ's Church has never failed to hold the faith of this predestination, which is now being defended with new solicitude against these modern heretics – Augustine.[36]
Middle Ages
In the thirteenth century, Thomas Aquinas taught that God predestines certain people to the beatific vision based solely on his own goodness rather than that of creatures.[40] Aquinas also believed that people are free in their choices, fully cause their own sin, and are solely responsible for it.[41] According to Aquinas, there are several ways in which God wills actions. He directly wills the good, indirectly wills evil consequences of good things, and only permits evil. Aquinas held that in permitting evil, God does not will it to be done or not to be done.[42]
In the thirteenth century, William of Ockham taught that God does not cause human choices and equated predestination with divine foreknowledge.[43] Though Ockham taught that God predestines based on people's foreseen works, he maintained that God's will was not constrained to do this.[44] Medieval theologians who believed in predestination include: John Wycliffe (1320s –1384),[45]Gregory of Rimini (1300–1358),[46] Johann Ruchrat von Wesel (died 1481),[47] Johannes von Staupitz (1460–1524),[48] Ratramnus (died 868),[49] Thomas Bradwardine (1300–1349)[50] and Girolamo Savonarola (1452–1498).[51]
The medieval Cathars denied the free will of humans.[52]
Reformation
John Calvin rejected the idea that God permits rather than actively decrees the damnation of sinners, as well as other evil.[53] Calvin did not believe God to be guilty of sin, but rather he considered God inflicting sin upon his creations to be an unfathomable mystery.[54] Though he maintained God's predestination applies to damnation as well as salvation, he taught that the damnation of the damned is caused by their sin, but that the salvation of the saved is solely caused by God.[55] Other Protestant Reformers, including Huldrych Zwingli, also held double predestinarian views.[56]
Views of Christian branches
Eastern Orthodoxy
The
Answer: The fact that the Kingdom of God is "taken by force" presupposes personal effort. When the Apostle Paul says, "it is not of him that willeth," this means that one's efforts do not produce what is sought. It is necessary to combine them: to strive and to expect all things from grace. It is not one's own efforts that will lead to the goal, because without grace, efforts produce little; nor does grace without effort bring what is sought, because grace acts in us and for us through our efforts. Both combine in a person to bring progress and carry him to the goal. (God's) foreknowledge is unfathomable. It is enough for us with our whole heart to believe that it never opposes God's grace and truth, and that it does not infringe man's freedom. Usually this resolves as follows: God foresees how a man will freely act and makes dispositions accordingly. Divine determination depends on the life of a man, and not his life upon the determination.[57]
Roman Catholicism
Roman Catholicism teaches the doctrine of predestination. The Catechism of the Catholic Church says, "To God, all moments of time are present in their immediacy. When therefore He establishes His eternal plan of 'predestination', He includes in it each person's free response to his grace."[58] Therefore, in the Roman Catholic conception of predestination, free will is not denied. However, Roman Catholic theology has discouraged beliefs that it is possible for anyone to know or predict anything about the operation and outcomes of predestination, and therefore it normally plays a very small role in Roman Catholic thinking.
The heretical seventeenth and eighteenth centuries sect within Roman Catholicism known as Jansenism preached the doctrine of double predestination, although Jansenism claimed that even members of the saved elect could lose their salvation by doing sinful, un-repented deeds[citation needed], as implied in Ezekiel 18:21–28 in the Old Testament of the Bible.[citation needed] According to the Roman Catholic Church, God does not will anyone to mortally sin and so to deserve punishment in hell.[59]
Pope John Paul II wrote:[60]
The universality of salvation means that it is granted not only to those who explicitly believe in Christ and have entered the Church. Since salvation is offered to all, it must be made concretely available to all. But it is clear that today, as in the past, many people do not have an opportunity to come to know or accept the gospel revelation or to enter the Church. (...) For such people salvation in Christ is accessible by virtue of a grace which, while having a mysterious relationship to the Church, does not make them formally part of the Church but enlightens them in a way which is accommodated to their spiritual and material situation. This grace comes from Christ; it is the result of his Sacrifice and is communicated by the Holy Spirit. It enables each person to attain salvation through his or her free cooperation.
Augustine of Hippo laid the foundation for much of the later Roman Catholic teaching on predestination. His teachings on grace and free will were largely adopted by the Second Council of Orange (529), whose decrees were directed against the Semipelagians. Augustine wrote,
[God] promised not from the power of our will but from His own predestination. For He promised what He Himself would do, not what men would do. Because, although men do those good things which pertain to God's worship, He Himself makes them to do what He has commanded; it is not they that cause Him to do what He has promised. Otherwise the fulfilment of God's promises would not be in the power of God, but in that of men"[61]
Augustine also teaches that people have free will. For example, in "On Grace and Free Will", (see especially chapters II–IV) Augustine states that "He [God] has revealed to us, through His Holy Scriptures, that there is in man a free choice of will," and that "God's precepts themselves would be of no use to a man unless he had free choice of will, so that by performing them he might obtain the promised rewards." (chap. II)
God does reprobate some. For it was said above (A[1]) that predestination is a part of providence. To providence, however, it belongs to permit certain defects in those things which are subject to providence, as was said above (Q[22], A[2]). Thus, as men are ordained to eternal life through the providence of God, it likewise is part of that providence to permit some to fall away from that end; this is called reprobation. Thus, as predestination is a part of providence, in regard to those ordained to eternal salvation, so reprobation is a part of providence in regard to those who turn aside from that end. Hence reprobation implies not only foreknowledge, but also something more, as does providence, as was said above (Q[22], A[1]). Therefore, as predestination includes the will to confer grace and glory; so also reprobation includes the will to permit a person to fall into sin, and to impose the punishment of damnation on account of that sin."[62]
Protestantism
Comparison
This table summarizes the classical views of three different Protestant beliefs.[63]
Topic | Lutheranism | Calvinism
|
Arminianism |
---|---|---|---|
Election | Unconditional election to salvation only | Unconditional election to salvation only, with reprobation (passing over)[64] | Conditional election in view of foreseen faith or unbelief |
Lutheranism
Calvinism
The
In this common, loose sense of the term, to affirm or to deny predestination has particular reference to the
Calvinist groups use the term Hyper-Calvinism to describe Calvinistic systems that assert without qualification that God's intention to destroy some is equal to his intention to save others. Some forms of Hyper-Calvinism have racial implications, as when Dutch Calvinist theologian Franciscus Gomarus argued that Jews, because of their refusal to worship Jesus Christ, were members of the non-elect, as also argued by John Calvin himself, based on I John 2:22–23 in The New Testament of the Bible. Some Dutch settlers in South Africa argued that black people were sons of Ham, whom Noah had cursed to be slaves, according to Genesis 9:18–19, or drew analogies between them and the Canaanites, suggesting a "chosen people" ideology similar to that espoused by proponents of the Jewish nation. This justified racial hierarchy on earth, as well as racial segregation of congregations, but did not exclude blacks from being part of the elect. Other Calvinists vigorously objected to these arguments (see Afrikaner Calvinism).
Expressed sympathetically, the
Calvinists typically divide on the issue of predestination into
Some Calvinists decline to describe the eternal decree of God in terms of a sequence of events or thoughts, and many caution against the simplifications involved in describing any action of God in speculative terms. Most make distinctions between the positive manner in which God chooses some to be recipients of grace, and the manner in which grace is consciously withheld so that some are destined for everlasting punishments.
Debate concerning predestination according to the common usage concerns the destiny of the damned: whether God is just if that destiny is settled prior to the existence of any actual volition of the individual, and whether the individual is in any meaningful sense responsible for his destiny if it is settled by the eternal action of God.
Arminianism
At the beginning of the 17th century, the Dutch theologian
From this perspective, comes the notion of a conditional election on the one who wills to have faith in God for salvation.[74] This means that God does not predetermine, but instead infallibly knows who will believe and perseveringly be saved. Although God knows from the beginning of the world who will go where, the choice is still with the individual.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
The LDS Church teaches the doctrine of moral
Types of predestination
Conditional election
Supralapsarianism and infralapsarianism
In common English parlance, the doctrine of predestination often has particular reference to the doctrines of
On the spectrum of beliefs concerning predestination, Calvinism is the strongest form among Christians. It teaches that God's predestining decision is based on the knowledge of his own will rather than foreknowledge, concerning every particular person and event; and, God continually acts with entire freedom, in order to bring about his will in completeness, but in such a way that the freedom of the creature is not violated, "but rather, established".[79]
Calvinists who hold the infralapsarian view of predestination usually prefer that term to "sublapsarianism," perhaps with the intent of blocking the inference that they believe predestination is on the basis of foreknowledge (sublapsarian meaning, assuming the fall into sin).[80] The different terminology has the benefit of distinguishing the Calvinist double predestination version of infralapsarianism from Lutheranism's view that predestination is a mystery, which forbids the unprofitable intrusion of prying minds since God only reveals partial knowledge to the human race.[81]
Double predestination
Double predestination, or the double decree, is the doctrine that God actively
Gottschalk of Orbais taught double predestination explicitly in the ninth century,[37] and Gregory of Rimini in the fourteenth.[85] Some trace this doctrine to statements made by Augustine in the early fifth century that on their own also seem to teach double predestination, but in the context of his other writings it is not clear whether he held this view. In "The City of God," Augustine describes all of humanity as being predestinated for salvation (i.e., the city of God) or damnation (i.e., the earthly city of man); but Augustine also held that all human beings were born "reprobate" but "need not necessarily remain" in that state of reprobation.[86][27]
Corporate election
Corporate election is a non-traditional Arminian view of election.[87] In corporate election, God does not choose which individuals he will save prior to creation, but rather God chooses the church as a whole. Or put differently, God chooses what type of individuals he will save. Another way the New Testament puts this is to say that God chose the church in Christ (Eph. 1:4). In other words, God chose from all eternity to save all those who would be found in Christ, by faith in God. This choosing is not primarily about salvation from eternal destruction either but is about God's chosen agency in the world. Thus individuals have full freedom in terms of whether they become members of the church or not.[87] Corporate election is thus consistent with the open view's position on God's omniscience, which states that God's foreknowledge does not determine the outcomes of individual free will.[citation needed]
Middle Knowledge
For example:
- if Free Creature A was to be placed in Circumstance B, God via his Middle Knowledge would know that Free Creature A will freely choose option Y over option Z.
- if Free Creature A was to be placed in Circumstance C, God via his Middle Knowledge would know that Free Creature A will freely choose option Z over option Y.
Based on this Middle Knowledge, God has the ability to actualise the world in which A is placed in a circumstance that he freely chooses to do what is consistent with Gods ultimate will. If God determined that the world most suited to his purposes is a world in which A would freely choose Y instead of Z, God can actualise a world in which Free Creature A finds himself in Circumstance B.
In this way, Middle Knowledge is thought of by its proponents to be consistent with any theological doctrines that assert God as having divine providence and man having a libertarian freedom (e.g. Calvinism, Catholicism, Lutheranism), and to offer a potential solution to the concerns that God's providence somehow nullifies man from having true liberty in his choices.
See also
References
Citations
- ^ "Predestination". The American Heritage New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy (Third ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2005. Retrieved 13 June 2011 – via Dictionary.com.
- JSTOR 43047851.
- ^ Sigal, Philip. The Emergence of Contemporary Judaism, Part I and II: The Foundations of Judaism from Biblical Origins to the Sixth Century A.D.
- ISBN 978-1-61671-079-8.
- ^ Levering 2011, p. 15.
- ^ Levering 2011, p. 16.
- ^ Levering 2011, p. 17.
- ISBN 978-90-04-31300-2.
- ^ Levering 2011, p. 25.
- ^ Levering 2011, p. 29.
- ^ Levering 2011, p. 31.
- ^ Levering 2011, p. 32.
- ^ Levering 2011, p. 33.
- ^ Levering 2011, p. 38.
- ^ Levering 2011, p. 39–40.
- ISBN 978-1-62189-175-8.
- ISBN 978-0-310-41041-6.
- ISBN 978-3-16-146994-7.
- ^ Denzer, Pam. "Odes of Solomon: Early Hymns of the Jewish Christian Mystical Tradition".
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-31300-2.
- ISBN 978-0-429-62823-8.
- ISBN 978-90-04-43638-1.
- ISBN 978-0-227-90567-8.
- ^ Levering 2011, p. 44.
- ^ Levering 2011, pp. 48–49.
- ^ Levering 2011, pp. 47–48.
- ^ a b James 1998, p. 102.
- ^ Chadwick 1993, p. 232.
- ^ Chadwick 1993, p. 233.
- ^ Levering 2011, p. 37.
- ^ Levering 2011, p. 60.
- ^ "Saint Prosper of Aquitaine | Christian polemicist". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 29 October 2021.
- ^ "Henry Wace: Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century A.D., with an Account of the Principal Sects and Heresies". www.ccel.org – Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 2 December 2021.
- .
- ^ "The Battle for Grace Alone by R.C. Sproul". Ligonier Ministries. Retrieved 1 December 2021.
- ^ a b "Philip Schaff: NPNF1-05. St. Augustine: Anti-Pelagian Writings". www.ccel.org – Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 2 December 2021.
- ^ a b Levering 2011, p. 70.
- ^ Levering 2011, p. 69.
- ^ Levering 2011, p. 74.
- ^ Levering 2011, p. 80.
- ^ Levering 2011, p. 78.
- ^ Levering 2011, pp. 78–79.
- ^ Levering 2011, p. 88.
- ^ Levering 2011, p. 89.
- ^ "John Wycliffe | Biography, Bible, Beliefs, Reformation, Legacy, Death, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 30 October 2021.
- ^ "Gregory Of Rimini | Italian philosopher". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 30 October 2021.
- ^ "Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume VI: The Middle Ages. A.D. 1294–1517". ccel.org – Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 14 November 2021.
- ISBN 978-1-4982-0454-5.
- ^ "Ratramnus | Benedictine theologian | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 21 November 2021.
- ISBN 978-1-4982-0454-5.
(Chapter name: Forerunners of the Protestant reformation) Bradwardine in his study of Augustinian theology came to an understanding of the doctrine of predestination as a positive affirmation of Gd's benevolent grace unto us.
- ^ "Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume VI: The Middle Ages. A.D. 1294–1517 – Christian Classics Ethereal Library". ccel.org. Retrieved 1 December 2021.
- ^ "Cathar Texts: The Book of the Two Principles". gnosis.org. Retrieved 1 December 2021.
- ^ Levering 2011, p. 102.
- ^ Levering 2011, p. 104.
- ^ Levering 2011, pp. 105–106.
- ^ James 1998, p. 30; Trueman 1994, p. 69.
- ^ St. Theophan the Recluse, An Explanation of Certain Texts of Holy Scripture, as quoted in Johanna Manley's The Bible and the Holy Fathers for Orthodox: Daily Scripture Readings and Commentary for Orthodox Christians, p. 609.
- ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, section 600
- ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, section 1037; Katholieke Encyclopaedie, praedestinatie
- Redemptoris Missio, chapter 1, section 10
- ^ Augustine of Hippo. "In What Respects Predestination and Grace Differ". Anti Pelagian Writings. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
- ^ Aquinas, Thomas. "Whether God Reprobates any Man". Summa Theologica. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
- ^ Table drawn, though not copied, from Lange, Lyle W. God So Loved the World: A Study of Christian Doctrine. Milwaukee: Northwestern Publishing House, 2006. p. 448.
- ISBN 0-8308-3248-3.
- ^ Acts 13:48, Eph. 1:4–11, Epitome of the Formula of Concord, Article 11, Election Archived 10 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 585–589, section "The Doctrine of Eternal Election: 1. The Definition of the Term", and Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 124–128, Part XXXI. "The Election of Grace", paragraph 176.
- ^ 2 Thess. 2:13, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 589–593, section "The Doctrine of Eternal Election: 2. How Believers are to Consider Their Election, and Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 127–128, Part XXXI. "The Election of Grace", paragraph 180.
- ^ 1 Tim. 2:4, 2 Pet. 3:9, Epitome of the Formula of Concord, Article 11, Election Archived 10 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine, and Engelder's Popular Symbolics, Part XXXI. The Election of Grace, pp. 124–128.
- ^ Hos. 13:9, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 637, section "The Doctrine of the Last Things (Eschatology), part 7. "Eternal Damnation", and Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 135–136, Part XXXIX. "Eternal Death", paragraph 196.
- ^ Stanglin & McCall 2012, p. 190.
- ^ Olson 2018. "What is Arminianism? A) Belief that God limits himself to give human beings free will to go against his perfect will so that God did not design or ordain sin and evil (or their consequences such as innocent suffering); B) Belief that, although sinners cannot achieve salvation on their own, without 'prevenient grace' (enabling grace), God makes salvation possible for all through Jesus Christ and offers free salvation to all through the gospel. 'A' is called 'limited providence,' 'B' is called 'predestination by foreknowledge.'"
- ^ Wiley 1940, Chap. 14.
- ^ Wiley 1940, Chap. 26.
- ^ Olson 2018, .
- ^ Walter A. Elwell, Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, Baker Academic, 2001, p. 98
- ^ "Gospel Topics: Foreordination". Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. LDS Church.
- ^ McConkie, Bruce R. (May 1974). "God Foreordains His Prophets and His People". Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. LDS Church. Archived from the original on 8 August 2020.
- ^ "Agency". churchofjesuschrist.org. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
- ^ "Calvin, John. Institutes of the Christian Religion, (Henry Beveridge, trans.), III.21.5". Archived from the original on 29 August 2006. Retrieved 21 June 2006.
- ^ Westminster Confession of faith, Ch 3
- ^ Here, sub- is opposed to super- or supra- in a sense related to volition and/or necessity. Cf., for relapse of same origin, http://freedictionary.org/index.php?Query=relapse&database=%2A&strategy=exact : L. relapsus, p. p. of relabi to slip back, to relapse.
- ^ "A Comparison and Evaluation of the Theology of Luther with That of Calvin". 19 March 2015. Archived from the original on 1 June 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2022.
- ^ James 1998, p. 30.
- ^ Trueman 1994, p. 69.
- ^ Calvin, John (1816). "Chapter 3". Institutes of Christian Religion. Vol. 3. P. H. Nicklin.
- ^ James 1998, p. 147.
- ^ Augustine, The City of God (New York, N.Y.: The Modern Library, 1950), pp. 478–479.
- ^ a b Brian Abasciano (25 October 2013). "The FACTS of Salvation: A Summary of Arminian Theology/the Biblical Doctrines of Grace". Society of Evangelical Arminians. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
Sources
- Calvin, John. Institutes of the Christian Religion (Henry Beveridge, 1845 trans.).
- Chadwick, Henry (1993). The Early Church. Penguin.
- James, Frank A. III (1998). Peter Martyr Vermigli and Predestination: The Augustinian Inheritance of an Italian Reformer. Oxford: Clarendon. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
- Levering, Matthew (2011). Predestination: Biblical and Theological Paths. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-960452-4.
- Trueman, Carl R. (1994). Luther's Legacy: Salvation and English Reformers, 1525–1556. Oxford: Clarendon. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 15 December 2015.
- Olson, Roger E. (2018). "Calvinism and Arminianism Compared". Roger E. Olson: My evangelical, Arminian theological musings. Patheos. Retrieved 27 August 2019.
- Stanglin, Keith D.; McCall, Thomas H. (2012). Jacob Arminius: Theologian of Grace. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Wiley, H. Orton (1940). Christian theology (3 volumes). Kansas City, MO: Beacon Hill Press.
Further reading
- Leif Dixon, Practical Predestinarians in England, c. 1590–1640; Farnham, Ashgate, 2013, ISBN 978-1409463863. Book review at Practical Predestinarians in England, c. 1590–1640 | Reviews in History
- Akin, James. The Salvation Controversy. San Diego, Calif.: Catholic Answers, 2001. Vid. pp. 77, 83–87, explaining the resemblances of this Catholic dogma with, and the divergences from, the teaching of Calvin and Luther on this matter. ISBN 1888992182
- ISBN 0895556340
- Park, Jae-Eun (July 2013). "John Knox's Doctrine of Predestination and Its Practical Application for His Ecclesiology". Puritan Reformed Journal. 5 (2): 65–90.
- _______. "John Plaifere (d.1632) on Conditional Predestination: A Well-mixed Version of scientia media and Resistible Grace." Reformation & Renaissance Review, 18.2 (2016): 155–173.
External links
- "Determinism in Theology: Predestination" by Robert M. Kindon in The Dictionary of the History of Ideas (1973–1974)
- "The question asked was does God know the future and how we will turn out."
- Predestination
- Understanding Predestination in Islam
- Detailed Lecture on Islamic Perspective on Fate
- Occurrences of "predestination" in the Bible text (ESV)
- The Reformed Doctrine of Predestination (1932) by Loraine Boettner (conservative Calvinist perspective)
- The Biblical Doctrine Of Predestination, Foreordination, and Election Archived 3 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine by F. Furman Kearley (Arminian perspective)
- "Predestination" from The Catholic Encyclopedia(1913)
- Academic articles on predestination and election (Lutheran perspective)
- Predestination and Free Will Overview of the concept of predestination from the Protestant and Catholic perspectives
- On the Presuppositions of our Personal Salvation Grace and predestination from the Orthodox perspective