Prehistoric Egypt
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Prehistoric Egypt and Predynastic Egypt span the period from the earliest human settlement to the beginning of the Early Dynastic Period around 3100 BC, starting with the first Pharaoh, Narmer for some Egyptologists, Hor-Aha for others, with the name Menes also possibly used for one of these kings.
At the end of prehistory, "Predynastic Egypt" is traditionally defined as the period from the final part of the
The Predynastic period is generally divided into cultural eras, each named after the place where a certain type of Egyptian settlement was first discovered. However, the same gradual development that characterizes the Protodynastic period is present throughout the entire Predynastic period, and individual "cultures" must not be interpreted as separate entities but as largely subjective divisions used to facilitate study of the entire period.
The vast majority of Predynastic archaeological finds have been in
Paleolithic
Excavation of the Nile has exposed early stone tools from the last million or so years. The earliest of these lithic industries were located within a 30-metre (100 ft)
The Fakhurian late Paleolithic industry in Upper Egypt, showed that a homogenous population existed in the Nile-Valley during the late Pleistocene. Studies of the skeletal material showed they were in the range of variation found in the Wadi Halfa, Jebel Sahaba and fragments from the Kom Ombo populations.[4]
Wadi Halfa
Some of the oldest known structures were discovered in Egypt by archaeologist Waldemar Chmielewski along the southern border near Wadi Halfa, Sudan, at the Arkin 8 site. Chmielewski dated the structures to 100,000 BC.[5] The remains of the structures are oval depressions about 30 cm deep and 2 × 1 meters across. Many are lined with flat sandstone slabs which served as tent rings supporting a dome-like shelter of skins or brush. This type of dwelling provided a place to live, but if necessary, could be taken down easily and transported. They were mobile structures—easily disassembled, moved, and reassembled—providing hunter-gatherers with semi-permanent habitation.[5]
Aterian industry
Aterian tool-making reached Egypt c. 40,000 BC.[5]
Khormusan industry
The
Late Paleolithic
The Late Paleolithic in Egypt started around 30,000 BC.[5] The Nazlet Khater skeleton was found in 1980 and given an age of 33,000 years in 1982, based on nine samples ranging between 35,100 and 30,360 years old.[7] This specimen is the only complete modern human skeleton from the earliest Late Stone Age in Africa.[8]
Mesolithic
Halfan and Kubbaniyan culture
The Halfan and Kubbaniyan, two closely related industries, flourished along the Upper
Sebilian culture
In Egypt, analyses of pollen found at archaeological sites indicate that the people of the Sebilian culture (also known as the Esna culture) were gathering wheat and barley. The
Qadan culture
The Qadan culture (13,000–9,000 BC) was a Mesolithic industry that, archaeological evidence suggests, originated in Upper Egypt (present-day south Egypt) approximately 15,000 years ago.[13][14] The Qadan subsistence mode is estimated to have persisted for approximately 4,000 years. It was characterized by hunting, as well as a unique approach to food gathering that incorporated the preparation and consumption of wild grasses and grains.[13][14] Systematic efforts were made by the Qadan people to water, care for, and harvest local plant life, but grains were not planted in ordered rows.[15]
Around twenty archaeological sites in Upper Nubia give evidence for the existence of the Qadan culture's grain-grinding culture. Its makers also practiced wild grain harvesting along the Nile during the beginning of the Sahaba Daru Nile phase, when desiccation in the Sahara caused residents of the Libyan oases to retreat into the Nile valley.[12] Among the Qadan culture sites is the Jebel Sahaba cemetery, which has been dated to the Mesolithic.[16]
Qadan peoples were the first to develop
Harifian culture
The
Neolithic to Proto-Dynastic
Lower Egypt
Faiyum A culture
Continued expansion of the desert forced the early ancestors of the Egyptians to settle around the Nile more permanently and adopt a more sedentary lifestyle during the Neolithic.
The period from 9000 to 6000 BC has left very little in the way of archaeological evidence. Around 6200 BC, Neolithic settlements appear all over Egypt.[20] Some studies based on morphological,[21] genetic,[22][23][24][25][26] and archaeological data[17][27][28][29][30] have attributed these settlements to migrants from the Fertile Crescent in the Near East returning during the Egyptian and North African Neolithic, bringing agriculture to the region.
Morphological and post-cranial data has linked the earliest farming populations at Fayum, Merimde, and El-Badari, to Near Eastern populations.
However, some scholars have disputed this view and cited
Weaving is evidenced for the first time during the Faiyum A Period. People of this period, unlike later Egyptians, buried their dead very close to, and sometimes inside, their settlements.[50]
Although archaeological sites reveal very little about this time, an examination of the many Egyptian words for "city" provides a hypothetical list of causes of Egyptian sedentarism. In Upper Egypt, terminology indicates trade, protection of livestock, high ground for flood refuge, and sacred sites for deities.[52]
Merimde culture
From about 5000 to 4200 BC the Merimde culture, so far only known from Merimde Beni Salama, a large settlement site at the edge of the Western Delta, flourished in Lower Egypt. The culture has strong connections to the Faiyum A culture as well as the Levant. People lived in small huts, produced a simple undecorated pottery and had stone tools. Cattle, sheep, goats and pigs were held. Wheat, sorghum and barley were planted. The Merimde people buried their dead within the settlement and produced clay figurines.[53] The first life-sized Egyptian head made of clay comes from Merimde.
El Omari culture
The El Omari culture is known from a small settlement near modern Cairo. People seem to have lived in huts, but only postholes and pits survive. The pottery is undecorated. Stone tools include small flakes, axes and sickles. Metal was not yet known.[54] Their sites were occupied from 4000 BC to the Archaic Period (3,100 BC).[55]
Maadi culture
The Maadi culture (also called Buto Maadi culture) is the most important Lower Egyptian prehistoric culture dated about 4000 - 3500 BC,[57] and contemporary with Naqada I and II phases in Upper Egypt. The culture is best known from the site Maadi near Cairo, as well as the site of Buto,[58] but is also attested in many other places in the Delta to the Faiyum region. This culture was marked by development in architecture and technology. It also followed its predecessor cultures when it comes to undecorated ceramics.[59]
Copper was known, and some copper adzes have been found. The pottery is hand-made; it is simple and undecorated. Presence of black-topped red pots indicate contact with the Naqada sites in the south. Many imported vessels from Palestine have also been found. Black basalt stone vessels were also used.[57]
People lived in small huts, partly dug into the ground. The dead were buried in cemeteries, but with few burial goods. The Maadi culture was replaced by the Naqada III culture; whether this happened by conquest or infiltration is still an open question.[60]
The developments in Lower Egypt in the times previous to the unification of the country have been the subject of considerable disputes over the years. The recent excavations at
Gallery
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Clapper discovered in Maadi, Louvre Museum
-
Carved catfish bones, and jar discovered in Maadi
-
Possible prisoners and wounded men of the Buto-Maadi culture devoured by animals, while one is led by a man in long dress, probably an Egyptian official (fragment, top right corner). Battlefield Palette.[56][62]
Upper Egypt
Tasian culture
The Tasian culture appeared around 4500 BC in
As the Predynastic period progressed, the handles on pottery evolved from functional to ornamental. The degree to which any given archaeological site has functional or ornamental pottery can also be used to determine the relative date of the site. Since there is little difference between Tasian ceramics and Badarian pottery, the Tasian Culture overlaps the Badarian range significantly.[63] From the Tasian period onward, it appears that Upper Egypt was influenced strongly by the culture of Lower Egypt.[64] Archaeological evidence has suggested that the Tasian and Badarian Nile Valley sites were a peripheral network of earlier African cultures that featured the movement of Badarian, Saharan, Nubian and Nilotic populations.[65] Bruce Williams, Egyptologist, has argued that the Tasian culture was significantly related to the Sudanese-Saharan traditions from the Neolithic era which extended from regions north of Khartoum to locations near Dongola in Sudan.[66]
Badarian culture
The Badarian culture, from about 4400 to 4000 BC,[67] is named for the Badari site near Der Tasa. It followed the Tasian culture, but was so similar that many consider them one continuous period. The Badarian Culture continued to produce the kind of pottery called blacktop-ware (albeit much improved in quality) and was assigned Sequence Dating numbers 21–29.[63] The primary difference that prevents scholars from merging the two periods is that Badarian sites use copper in addition to stone and are thus Chalcolithic settlements, while the Neolithic Tasian sites are still considered Stone Age.[63]
Badarian flint tools continued to develop into sharper and more shapely blades, and the first faience was developed.[68] Distinctly Badarian sites have been located from Nekhen to a little north of Abydos.[69] It appears that the Fayum A culture and the Badarian and Tasian Periods overlapped significantly; however, the Fayum A culture was considerably less agricultural and was still Neolithic in nature.[68][70] Several biological anthropological studies have shown strong biological affinities between the Badarians and other Northeast African populations.[71][72][73][74][75][76]
In 2005, Keita examined Badarian crania from predynastic upper Egypt in comparison to various
Dental trait analysis of Badarian fossils conducted in a thesis study found that they were closely related to other
Naqada culture
The
In 1996, Lovell and Prowse also reported the presence of individuals buried at Naqada in what they interpreted to be elite, high status tombs, showing them to be an endogamous ruling or elite segment of the local population at Naqada, which is more closely related to populations in northern Nubia than to neighbouring populations in southern Egypt. Specifically, they stated the Naqda samples were "more similar to the
In 2023,
Amratian culture (Naqada I)
The Amratian culture lasted from about 4000 to 3500 BC.
Newly excavated objects attest to increased trade between Upper and Lower Egypt at this time. A stone vase from the north was found at el-Amra, and copper, which is not mined in Egypt, was imported from the Sinai, or possibly Nubia. Obsidian[89] and a small amount of gold[88] were both definitely imported from Nubia. Trade with the oases also was likely.[89]
New innovations appeared in Amratian settlements as precursors to later cultural periods. For example, the mud-brick buildings for which the Gerzean period is known were first seen in Amratian times, but only in small numbers.[90] Additionally, oval and theriomorphic cosmetic palettes appear in this period, but the workmanship is very rudimentary and the relief artwork for which they were later known is not yet present.[91][92]
Gerzean culture (Naqada II)
The Gerzean culture, from about 3500 to 3200 BC,
Gerzean culture coincided with a significant decline in rainfall,[94] and farming along the Nile now produced the vast majority of food,[93] though contemporary paintings indicate that hunting was not entirely forgone. With increased food supplies, Egyptians adopted a much more sedentary lifestyle and cities grew as large as 5,000.[93]
It was in this time that Egyptian city dwellers stopped building with reeds and began mass-producing mud bricks, first found in the Amratian Period, to build their cities.[93]
Egyptian stone tools, while still in use, moved from
The first tombs in classic Egyptian style were also built, modeled after ordinary houses and sometimes composed of multiple rooms.[89] Although further excavations in the Delta are needed, this style is generally believed to originate there and not in Upper Egypt.[89]
Although the Gerzean Culture is now clearly identified as being the continuation of the
Distinctly foreign objects and art forms entered Egypt during this period, indicating contacts with several parts of Asia. Objects such as the
In addition, Egyptian objects are created which clearly mimic Mesopotamian forms, although not slavishly.
The route of this trade is difficult to determine, but contact with
The fact that so many Gerzean sites are at the mouths of wadis that lead to the Red Sea may indicate some amount of trade via the Red Sea (though Byblian trade potentially could have crossed the Sinai and then taken the Red Sea).[101] Also, it is considered unlikely that something so complicated as recessed panel architecture could have worked its way into Egypt by proxy, and at least a small contingent of migrants is often suspected.[100]
Despite this evidence of foreign influence, Egyptologists generally agree that the Gerzean Culture is still predominantly indigenous to Egypt.
Protodynastic Period (Naqada III)
The Naqada III period, from about 3200 to 3000 BC,
Naqada III is notable for being the first era with
The relatively affluent Maadi suburb of Cairo is built over the original Naqada stronghold.[103]
-
Protodynastic sceptre fragment with royal couple. Staatliche Sammlung für Ägyptische Kunst, Munich
-
Fragment of a ceremonial palette illustrating a man and a type of staff. Circa 3200–3100 BC, Predynastic, Late Naqada III.
Lower Nubia
Lower Nubia is located within the borders of modern-day Egypt but is south of the border of Ancient Egypt, which was located at the
Nabta Playa
Timeline
- Late Paleolithic, from 40th millennium BC
- Neolithic, from 11th millennium BC
- c. 10,500 BC: Wild grain harvesting along the Nile, grain-grinding culture creates world's earliest stone sickle blades[5] roughly at end of Pleistocene
- c. 8000 BC: Migration of peoples to the Nile, developing a more centralized society and settled agricultural economy
- c. 7500 BC: Importing animals from Asia to Sahara
- c. 7000 BC: Agriculture—animal and cereal—in East Sahara
- c. 7000 BC: in Nabta Playa deep year-round water wells dug, and large organized settlements designed in planned arrangements
- c. 6000 BC: Rudimentary ships (rowed, single-sailed) depicted in Egyptian rock art
- c. 5500 BC: Stone-roofed subterranean chambers and other subterranean complexes in Nabta Playa containing buried sacrificed cattle
- c. 5000 BC: Alleged archaeoastronomical stone megalith in Nabta Playa.[114][115]
- c. 5000 BC: Badarian: furniture, tableware, models of rectangular houses, pots, dishes, cups, bowls, vases, figurines, combs
- c. 4400 BC: finely-woven linen fragment[116]
- From 4th millennium BC, inventing has become prevalent
- c. 4000 BC: early Naqadan trade[117]
- 4th millennium BC: Gerzeantomb-building, including underground rooms and burial of furniture and amulets
- 4th millennium BC: Cedar imported from Lebanon[citation needed]
- c. 3900 BC: An aridification event in the Sahara leads to human migration to the Nile Valley[118]
- c. 3500 BC: Badakshan and / or Mesopotamia
- c. 3500 BC: Senet, world's oldest (confirmed) board game
- c. 3500 BC: Faience, world's earliest-known glazed ceramic beads[citation needed]
- c. 3400 BC: Cosmetics,[citation needed] donkey domestication,[citation needed] (meteoric) iron works,[119] mortar (masonry)
- c. 3300 BC: Double reed instruments and lyres (see Music of Egypt)
- c. 3100 BC: Pharaoh Narmer, or Menes, or possibly Hor-Aha unified Upper and Lower Egypt
Relative chronology
See also
- 5.9 kiloyear event
- Prehistoric North Africa
Notes
- ^ The Khormusan is defined as a Middle Palaeolithic industry while the Halfan is defined as an Epipalaeolithic industry. According to scholarly opinion, the Khormusan and the Halfan are viewed as separate and distinct cultures.[10]
- ^ a b According to scholarly opinion the Harifian culture is derived from the Natufian culture in which the only characteristic that distinguishes it from the Natufian is the Harif point. It is viewed as an adaptation of Natufian hunter gatherers to the Negev and Sinai.[17] The Harifian are thought to have lasted only about three hundred years, then vanishing, followed by a thousand year hiatus during which the Negev and Sinai regions were uninhabitable.[17] Since the Harifian culture ended c. 12,000 BP[18] there could be no possible connection with the PPNB which began c. 10,500 BP.
- ^ Settler colonists from the Near East would most likely have merged with the indigenous cultures resulting in a mixed economy with the agricultural aspect of the economy increasing in frequency through time, which is what the archaeological record more precisely indicates. Both pottery, lithics, and economy with Near Eastern characteristics, and lithics with North African characteristics are present in the Fayum A culture.[34]
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- ^ "There is no evidence, no archaeological signal, for a mass migration (settler colonization)" into Egypt from southwest Asia at the time of the writing. Core Egyptian culture was well established. A total peopling of Egypt at this time from the Near East would have meant the mass migration of Semitic speakers. The ancient Egyptian language - using the usual academic language taxonomy - is a branch within Afroasiatic with one member (not counting place of origin/urheimat is within Africa, using standard linguistic criteria based on the locale of greatest diversity, deepest branches, and least moves accounting for its five or six branches or sevem, if Ongota is counted".Keita, S. O. Y. (September 2022). "Ideas about "Race" in Nile Valley Histories: A Consideration of "Racial" Paradigms in Recent Presentations on Nile Valley Africa, from "Black Pharaohs" to Mummy Genomest". Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections.
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- ^ a b Gardiner, Alan (1964). Egypt of the Pharaohs. Oxford: University Press. p. 388.
- ^ Josephson, Jack. "Naqada IId, Birth of an Empire": 173.
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- ^ a b Brovarski, Edward (2016). "Reflections on the Battlefield and Libyan Booty Palettes. (in Vandijk, J. (ed.), Another Mouthful of Dust: Egyptological Studies in Honour of Geoffrey Thorndike Martin: Leiden: Peeters, pp. 81-89)". p. 89.
- ^ a b "Maadi", University College London.
- ^ "Buto – Maadi Culture", Ancient Egypt Online.
- ^ Mark, Joshua J. (18 January 2016). "Predynastic Period in Egypt". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14 November 2017.
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- ^ a b c Gardiner, Alan, Egypt of the Pharaohs (Oxford: University Press, 1964), p. 389.
- ^ Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. p.35. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988.
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- ^ Newell, G.D. "A re-examination of the Badarian Culture" Academia.edu, 2012
- ^ "When Mahalanobis
D2 was used,the Naqadan and Badarian Predynastic samples exhibited more similarity to Nubian, Tigrean, and some more southern series than to some mid- to late Dynasticseries from northern Egypt (Mukherjee et al., 1955). The Badarian have been found to be very similar to a Kerma sample (Kushite Sudanese), using both the Penrose statistic (Nutter, 1958) and DFA of males alone (Keita,1990). Furthermore, Keita considered that Badarian males had a southern modal phenotype, and that together with a Naqada sample, they formed a southern Egyptian cluster as tropical variants together with a sample from Kerma". Zakrzewski, Sonia R. (April 2007). "Population continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 132 (4): 501–509. PMID 17295300.
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D2 was used, the Naqadan and Badarian Predynastic samples exhibited more similarity to Nubian, Tigrean, and some more southern series than to some mid- to late Dynasticseries from northern Egypt (Mukherjee et al., 1955). The Badarian have been found to be very similar to a Kerma sample (Kushite Sudanese), using both the Penrose statistic (Nutter, 1958) and DFA of males alone (Keita,1990). Furthermore, Keita considered that Badarian males had a southern modal phenotype, and that together with a Naqada sample, they formed a southern Egyptian cluster as tropical variants together with a sample from Kerma". Zakrzewski, Sonia R. (April 2007). "Population continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 132 (4): 501–509. PMID 17295300.
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Table 3 presents the MMD data for Badari, Qena, and Nubia in addition to Naqada and shows that these samples are all significantly different from each other. ... 1) the Naqada samples are more similar to each other than they are to the samples from the neighbouring Upper Egyptian or Lower Nubian sites and 2) the Naqada samples are more similar to the Lower Nubian protodynastic sample than they are to the geographically more proximate Egyptian samples.
- ^ Lovell Nancy and Prowse Tracy (17 December 2012). "Concordance of cranial and dental morphological traits and evidence f…". Archive.ph. Archived from the original on 17 December 2012. Retrieved 16 September 2023.
the Naqada samples are more similar to each other than they are to the samples from the neighbouring Upper Egyptian or Lower Nubian sites
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- ^ Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. Princeton: University Press, 1992, p. 7.
- ^ Gardiner, Alan, Egypt of the Pharaohs. Oxford: University Press, 1964, p. 393.
- ^ Newell, G. D., "The Relative chronology of PNC I" (Academia.Edu: 2012)
- ^ a b c d e f g h Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 16.
- ^ a b Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 17.
- ^ a b "Site officiel du musée du Louvre". cartelfr.louvre.fr.
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- ^ Christiansen, S. U.2023 What do the Figurines of ”Bird Ladies” in Predynastic Egypt represent? (OAJAA)
- ^ Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 18.
- ^ a b c Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 22.
- ^ Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 20.
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- .
- History of ferrous metallurgy#Meteoric iron—"Around 4000 BC small items, such as the tips of spears and ornaments, were being fashioned from iron recovered from meteorites" – attributed to R. F. Tylecote, A History of Metallurgy (2nd edition, 1992), p. 3.
External links
- Information about Ancient Egyptian History Archived 14 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine: from This Is Egypt | Information about Ancient Egyptian History
- Ancient Egyptian History - A comprehensive and concise educational website focusing on the basic and the advanced in all aspects of Ancient Egypt
- Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization - Oriental Institute